simmonds Flashcards
features of the cognitive stage of learning
- jerky movement
- poor technique
- conscious thought of technique
- no Kinaesthesias
- Trial and error stage
features of the associative stage of learning
- starting to strategise
- practice stage
- more fluent movement
- more trial and error
- long term memory store
- match technical model of performance
features of the autonomus stage of learning
- technique is subconscious
- movement is fluid
- intrinsic feedback
whole practice description
skill is practiced without any breakdowns of subroutines e.g. cartwheel
advantages of whole practice
- develops kinesthesis
- allows us to enhance/improve the skill quickly
disadvantages of whole practice
- hard for cognitive learners
- cant break down the skill to focus on sub routine
part practice description
skill is broken down into subroutines, particular sub routine is then selected and practiced e.g. ball toss in a tennis serve
advantages of part practice
- can focus on specific weakness within the skill
- fine tune the skill
- build confidence for cognitive learners
- can experience success quickly
disadvantages of part practice
- lose the kinaesthetic feel
- can be time consuming
progressive part practice description
(AKA chaining)
first subroutine is practiced, then the second, then both together before the third is added
e.g. ball and racket, then ball toss then both together
advantages of progressive part practice
- shows coach which areas need improving
- useful to break down skills that require a lot of information
disadvantages of progressive part practice
- cannot use in discrete skills as they can’t be broken down into sub routines
- can be time consuming
- if first sub routine is not performed well then whole skill will be badly effected
whole-part-whole practice description
practice whole skill without breaks in, a subroutine is then selected and practiced in isolation, then whole skill is practiced again
e.g. tennis serve, then ball toss, then serve again
advantages of whole-part-whole practice
- good for low organisation and serial skills
disadvantages of whole-part-whole practice
- time consuming
- lose kinesthesis during the part phase
massed practice description
continuous practice session
advantages of massed practice
- gives good kinaesthetic feel
- good with short duration skills
disadvantages of massed practice
- can cause tedium as skill is continuously repeated
distributed practice description
involves periods of rest in between work
advantages of distributed practice
- allows athletes to practice mental rehearsal in breaks
- feedback can be given in breaks
- good for beginner
fixed practice description
practice sone in a stable and predictable environment
advantages of fixed practice
- allows the athlete to get a strong kinaesthetic feel for the skill
- allows performer to focus on individual skills
- allows performer to focus on entirety of skill
disadvantages of fixed practice
- can cause tedium as performer is repeating same skill every time.
varied practice description
practice in an unpredictable environment e.g. 4 vs 2 attack vs defence
advantages of varied practice
- improves decision making
- gain more experience
- more similar to a game situation
disadvantages of varied practice
- can’t focus on individual skills
open skill
effected by the environment around you, usually done differently every time e.g. dribbling in and out of defenders in hockey
closed skill
repeatable, done the same every time, not effected by environment e.g. free throw in basketball
externally paced skill
speed at which you perform the skill is controlled by the environment e.g. start of a 100m race
self paced skill
rate at which you perform is determined by you e.g. drive in golf
fine skill
- small muscle groups
- precise movements
e.g. pistol shooting
gross skill
- large muscle groups
- not very precise
e.g. rugby tackle
complex skill
- lots of decisions
- high perceptual load
- difficult to perform
e.g. aerial in hockey
simple skill
- few decisions
- low perceptual load
- easy to perform
e.g. running
high organisation skills
- closely linked sub routines
- difficult to separate sub routines.
e.g. cartwheel
low organisation skills
- easy to separate sub routines
- practiced as separate parts
e.g. tennis serve
continuous skills
- no clear beginning and end
- repetitive
e.g. cycling
serial skills
- several discreet elements
- performed in a pattern of movement
e.g. triple jump
discrete skills
- clear beginning and end
- if repeated it must start from the beginning
e.g. penalty flick in hockey
operant conditioning theorist
skinner
operant conditioning definition
An associationist view of learning which focuses on manipulating and condoning behaviour towards a stimulus using trial and error and reinforcement.
positive reinforcement
when a stimulus is given after the correct response e.g. coach saying well done after a good pass
negative reinforcement
when an adverse stimulus is withdrawn after the correct response e.g. a coach stops shouting at you after you do something right
punishment
when a noxious stimulant is given to prevent a response occurring e.g. coach shouts at you not to do something
name Thorndike’s three laws
- law of exercise
- law of effect
- law of readiness
Thorndike’s law of exercise
skills improve through training
e.g. 20 minutes a day will strengthen SR bond
Thorndike’s law of effect
positive outcome/satisfaction from practice makes you continue
e.g. player starts scoring goals so practices more
Thorndike’s law of readiness
you need to be physically and mentally strong enough to do the skill you are practicing
e.g. strong enough to throw an aerial and motivated to do it
cognitive learning theorist
Gestalts
cognitive learning description
- using problem solving and memory of effective experiences to solve a new challenge
- using whole skills
intervening variables definition
these are mental processes involved in decision making
advantages of cognitive learning
- performer can become more independent and can self correct during a game
- they can adapt better to different situations
- they could make quick progress and develop kinesthesis
disadvantages of cognitive learning
- using while practice might be a problem if the skill is too difficult
- if the performer is a beginner learning could be slow as they dont understand what to do and could be demotivated
- might not have any past experiences to draw upon
social/obersvaetional learning theorist
Bandura
social/obersvaetional learning description
learning through watching and copying significant others
significant others definition
role models
Bandura’s 4 processes (A)
Attention - the performer must be paying attention to the demonstration
Bandura’s 4 processes (R)
Retention - the performer must be able to remember the demonstration
Bandura’s 4 processes (MR)
motor reproduction - the performer must be physically and mentally able to carry out the skill being demonstrated
Bandura’s 4 processes (M)
motivation - the performer needs to want to carry out the skill
negative transfer
one skill hinders another e.g. squash and tennis
positive transfer
one skill helps another e.g. throw-in in football and a line-out throw in rugby
proactive transfer
where a perviously learned skill has an impact on a newly learned skill e.g. knowing how to throw a cricket ball may help with throwing a javelin
retroactive transfer
newly learned skill has an impact on a previously learned skill e.g. hitting a ball in hockey impacting golf swing
bilateral transfer
being able to perform a skill with both sides of the body e.g. passing off of both hands in rugby
advantages of verbal guidance
- can be feedback to reinforce good movements and identify bad ones
- can hold performer attention when used properly and can be motivational
- good for autonomous learners
disadvantages of verbal guidance
- can lead to information overload
- guidance could be inaccurate leading to incorrect execution of the skill/movement
advantages of visual guidance
- easy for the performer to create a mental picture of the skill
- can enable the skill to be seen in sub routines, making it easier to learn
- encourages observational learning by drawing attention to important queues
- good for cognitive learners
disadvantages of visual guidance
- demonstration could be inaccurate leading to bad habits and hindering the performers skill development
- visual representation may be unclear or too quick for the performer to follow
- unlikely for a cognitive learner to be able to perform a complex skill demonstrated
- needs support from verbal guidance
advantages of manual guidance
- can help performer grow in confidence
- builds kinesthesis
disadvantages of manual guidance
- can be over restrictive, might feel a lack of control
- can lead to false sense of kinesthesis as the body is restricted
advantages of mechanical guidance
- helps grow confidence
- can isolate an important sub routine to practice
- allows variation
disadvantages of mechanical guidance
- can be over restrictive, might feel a lack of control
- can lead to false sense of kinesthesis as body is restricted by mechanical aids
- can become over reliant on mechanical aid, losing kinesthesis
short term sensory store features
- 0.25-1 second
- selective attention occurs
- large capacity
short term memory (working memory) features
- 30 seconds
- information is processed here
- 5-9 pieces of information
- relevant information from selective attention is remembered
- comparison is made with LTM and response is selected
long term memory features
- limitless capacity
- holds information for long periods of time
- useless information not stored
- encoding (passed to LTM) and decoding (back to STM)
- if skill is more rehearsed it becomes more recognisable
Craik and Lockhart’s level processing belief
if we want information to be processed deeply, and therefore remembered it must be considered, understood and have meaning
Structural level of processing
- Paying attention to what the words look like
- shallow level of learning
phonetic level of processing
- processing the way the words sound
- deeper level of learning
semantic level of processing
- this considers the actual meaning of the information
- deepest form of processing
Hollanders perception of personality: inner phycological core
- not affected by environment
- permanent qualities
Hollanders perception of personality: typical response
- how we usually respond
Hollanders perception of personality: role related behaviour
- this is our typical response, however affected by circumstances
- behaviour will be different at different times
Hollanders perception of personality: social environment
- effects our behaviour
attitude definition
- a predisposition to act in a particular way towards an attitude object
- learned and unstable
- if created by false info its called prejudice
attitude object
particular situations, people or beliefs
triadic model (C)
cognitive
- our beliefs are formed from what we have leaned from others and our past experiences e.g. understanding that running makes us fit
triadic model (A)
Affective
- our emotions are how we feel towards something.
- this is based on past experiences e.g. feeling good after running
triadic model (B)
behavioural
- this is our response to the attitude.
- if the cognitive and affective responses are positively linked the behaviour will be positive e.g. going for a run makes you feel good and you know it makes you fit so you go on a run
congruent
all support one another
cognitive dissonance
conflict amongst the three components
persuasive communication: The persuader
needs to have a high status e.g. coach or role model
persuasive communication: The recipient
Attitude can easily change if recipient is willing to change e.g. the player understands why change is needed
persuasive communication: The message
needs to be presented un a way that makes player want to change e.g. telling the player they are skilful enough to change
persuasive communication: The situation
Attitudes are changed more easily if other persuaders are present e.g. team members provide encouragement
drive theory description
- linear relationship between arousal and the performance of the dominant response
dominant response definition
the learnt behaviour that is most likely to occur with increased arousal
effect of arousal on novices
- effective negatively and perform badly when their arousal is high because dominant response is likely to be wrong
- low levels of arousal best suite learners in cognitive and associative stage
- high arousal inhibits the performance of fine motor skills
effect of arousal on experts
- affected positively and perform well with high arousal as the dominant response is likely to be correct
- high arousal will benefit expert performers who want to be challenged
- high arousal helps the performance of dynamic skills
inverted U theory description
- as arousal increases the quality of performance increases up to the optimum point
- performance is best at optimum point
- after optimum point of arousal, if arousal increases, performance decreases gradually
under arousal impact
performance will be below potential due to attentional broadening
optimum arousal impact
attentional field adjusts to ideal width, this has a positive effect on selective attention and cue-utilisation
over arousal impact
performance goes down due to hyper vigilance and perceptual narrowing. leads to poor decision making
catastrophe theory
considers the effects of somatic arousal and cognitive anxiety
high somatic arousal + low cognitive anxiety =
optimal performance
high somatic arousal + high cognitive anxiety =
over arousal
how to prevent catastrophe
- lower cognitive anxiety
- performance can improve and upward curve can be rejoined
Anxiety definition
a state of apprehension, worry and uneasiness
state anxiety definition
an individuals immediate level of anxiety in a particular situation e.g. during a cup match
trait anxiety definition
the general inclination of a person to see situations as threatening. this is unchanging, long lasting and applies across all situations
somatic response to anxiety
the physical symptoms including: increased blood pressure and HR, sweating, nausea, increased body temp and muscle tension
cognitive response to anxiety
the thoughts/worries about performance: apprehension, worrying, negative thoughts
personality definition
the sum total of an individuals characteristics which make a human unique
trait perspective theory
personality determined by:
- inherited qualities
- traits are stable in all situations
- personality/behaviour is predictable e.g. some people always get aggressive
- behaviour = function of personality
social learning perspective
personality determined by:
- copying behaviour of others and being reinforced for it
- copying is more likely if model is significant and if behaviour is reinforced
- personality is the same is situation re-occurs
- behaviour = function of environment
interactionist approach
personality determined by:
- relationship between personality traits and environment
- behaviour changing to the demands of the situation
- personality/behaviour is unpredictable
- behaviour = personality + environment
extrovert characteristics
- outgoing
- confident with other people
- reticular activating system = low sensitivity
- become aroused slowly
introvert characteristics
- inward focus
- prefer isolation
- lack confidence with others
reticular activating system = high sensitivity - quickly aroused
stable personality characteristics
- predictable routine
- suited to sports needing high performance
- consistant moods
- appear calm
- low anxiety
- realistic/logical
unstable personality characteristics
- unpredictable nature
- not ideal for sports
- inconsistant moods
- prone to worry
- high anxiety
- unrealistic/illogical
personality type A characteristics
- tends to become highly aroused
- prone to excessive anxiety
- impatient with themselves and others
- works fast and is ambitious
- tendency towards aggression
- highly competitive
personality type B characteristics
- able to control arousal
- can relax and subdue anxiety
- patient with themselves and others
- cool under pressure
- passive
- less competitive
aggression definition
behaviour that is intended to harm anther player by physical or verbal means
instinct theory
- a trait theory proposed by Freaud
- states that aggression is inevitable as it is genetically inherited and is therefore predictable
- the aggressive trait is called the ‘death instinct’ which is behaving aggressively, even when self destructive.
social learning theory
- proposed by bandura
- aggression is learned through imitation of others, particularly role models
- aggression is more likely to be copied if the rile model is reinforced for it
- aggression is more likely if it is the social norm of the group, which may link to the sport being played e.g. rugby
frustration aggression hypothesis
- Dollard
- Frustration is caused by the environment blocking the goals of the performer which triggers aggression
- if aggressive act is successful, frustration will be released through catharsis
- if the act is unsuccessful or is punished, then there will be a further buildup of aggression
Aggression cue hypothesis
- Berkowitz
- frustration leads to an increase in arousal which creates a readiness for aggression
- aggression will only be triggered if provoked by a cue from the environment e.g. bad call from ref
- no que = no agression
social facilitation/inhibition
this is the influence of the presence of others on performance e.g. an audience watching a performer
social facilitation (effect on performance)
increase performance
social inhibition (effect on performance)
decrease performance
Effect of an audience on: introvert
social inhibition
- get over aroused
Effect of an audience on: extrovert
social facilitation
- seek social situations
Effect of an audience on: beginner
social inhibition
- get distracted from task
Effect of an audience on: expert
social facilitation
- perform better in front of crowd
Effect of an audience on: simple skill
social facilitation
- less focus needed
Effect of an audience on: complex skill
social inhibition
- more focus needed
Effect of an audience on: gross skill
social facilitation
- requires high levels of arousal
Effect of an audience on: fine skill
social inhibition
- requires low levels of arousal
evaluation apprehension
- a performers arousal increases because they perceive judgement by others in the audience.
- perceived judgement increases anxiety and decreases confidence
- negative impact on performance
group definition
groups are those social aggregates that involve mutual awareness and the potential for interaction
mutual awareness definition
where individuals know about the activities of other group members and the overall progress if the group
e.g. a football crowd is too big to be considered a group
Attribution: internal and stable
Ability
e.g. we were to strong for the opposition
Attribution: internal and unstable
effort
e.g. we prepared well and gave it everything
Attribution: external and stable
task difficulty
e.g. they were the team at the bottom of the league
Attribution: external and unstable
luck
e.g. a lot of 50 50 decisions went our way
locus of control/casualty
whether factors are internal or external to the performer
effect of effort attributions: controllability for success
- the performer takes credit for success due to effort, use of tactics…
- increase self confidence and encourages mastery orientation e.g. we won due to hard work
effect of effort attributions: controllability for failure
- the performer realises failure was due to a lack of effort
- this gives them control over future success, provided that the performer has achievable goals to raise self confidence e.g. we lost because we didn’t work hard enough
controllability effect on mastery orientation
increases
controllability effect on learned helplessness
decreases
learned helplessness definition
- the belief that failure is inevitable and uncontrollable
reasons for learned helplessness
- when a performer attributes failure to stable reasons, which offer no hope for change e.g. i cant perform the skill as i dont have the ability
- performers with LH attribute success to external factors discrediting themselves
what can learned helplessness lead to
- decreased self confidence
- performers giving up easily as success is not quickly achieved
how can you prevent leaned helplessness
- attributing success internally and failure externally
- this is known as self servicing bias and can raise short term confidence
mastery orientation definition
- a high achiever who has a strong desire to succeed and expects to succeed
- linked to high self confidence
characteristics of performers with mastery orientation
- take on challenges
- show persistence when faced with difficulty
- optimised performance
- attributing success internally and failure to internal, unstable factors (effort) encourages mastery orientation.
sport confidence definition
a general disposition which is stable and global
advantages of high sport confidence (3 points)
- increased quality of performance and success due to increased participation and persistence
- increased participation due to the expectation of success and therefore enjoyment
- increased self esteem due to experiencing success
self efficacy
a specific type of confidence, specific task/skill
high self efficacy =
approach behaviour
low self efficacy =
avoidance behaviour
low self esteem may lead to
- being depressed
- having eating disorders
- engagement in risky behaviour
- no sporting participation
- get bullied or be bully
Vealey’s model: Trait sports confidence
An individuals innate natural belief in their general sporting ability
Vealey’s model: competitive orientation
How prepared an individual is to compete, and the types of goal that they have
Vealey’s model: objective sport situation
the nature of the task that is to be performed
Vealey’s model: state sport confidence
An individuals (unstable) belief in their ability to be successful at a particular time
Vealey’s model: subjective perceptions of outcome
the extent to which a performer believes their performance was successful
what will a positive subjective outcome do to trait sport confidence
increase it
what will a negative subjective outcome do to trait sport confidence
decrease it
Vealey’s model
look at a diagram of it. and learn it!
Bandura’s theory of self efficacy: performance accomplishments
- the previous success that a performer has had
- if a performer is reminded of a previous master of tasks, self efficacy will increase
Bandura’s theory of self efficacy: vicarious experiences
- watching others with equal ability succeeding at the task
- if demonstration is accurate and successful then self efficacy will increase
Bandura’s theory of self efficacy: verbal persuasion
- being convinced they have the ability to succeed
- positive talk from a coach increases self efficacy. experienced performers can use positive self talk to persuade themselves
Bandura’s theory of self efficacy: emotional arousal
- performers perception of their physiological and psychological state
- if performer can view their hightened arousal as readiness for performance, efficacy will increase
characteristics of a good leader
- confident persona
- motivated
- persistant
- enthusiastic
- good communicator
emergent leader
- appointed from within
- an experienced performer becomes a coach
emergent leader advantages
- familiar with team members
- understand team dynamics
emergent leader disadvantages
- maybe ‘too familiar’ with team
- hard to make decisions with teammates are friends
prescribed leader
- appointed from outside the group
- e.g. African coach coaching team GB
prescribed leader advantages
- brings new ideas/fresh blood to team
- no bias when making decisions
prescribed leader disadvantages
- doesn’t understand team dynamics
- makes decisions based on knowledge maybe not whats best for the team.
autocratic leadership style
- task orientated
- makes all the decisions
autocratic leadership style advantages
good for
- dangerous tasks
- large groups
- beginners
- groups of males
democratic leadership style
- person orientated
- shared decisions
democratic leadership style advantages
good for
- small groups
- groups of females
- experienced performers
- developing ownership
laissez faire leadership style
- lets things happen
- leader stands aside
- lack of direction and guidance
- trial and error
laissez faire leadership style advantages
good for
- experienced group
- team building
Leadership theories: trait perspective
- effective leadership behaviour is innate/genetically programmed
e.g. Ambition and empathy may be inherited, enabling effective leadership
Leadership theories: social learning
- effective leadership is learned through the environment through imitation and reinforcement
e.g. effective leadership is observed, copied and reinforced
Leadership theories: interactionist approach
- effective leadership is determined by a combination of social learning and trait perspective
e.g. a person may inherit abilities then observe and imitate others
stress definition
a trigger that can cause arousal or anxiety
stressors definition
things in the environment that cause stress
stress response definition
how we physically respond to changes
stress experience
the way we perceive the situation
Cognitive stress management: positive self talk
believing in your ability and talking to yourself to focus on the task
Cognitive stress management: negative thought stopping
substituting any negative thoughts with positive ones
Cognitive stress management: rational thinking
focuses on things you are able to control e.g. technique
Cognitive stress management: mental rehearsal
picturing yourself performing the skill before doing it
Cognitive stress management: imagery
picture yourself succeeding in performing the skill
Cognitive stress management: goal setting
a focus for achievement
Cognitive stress management: mindfulness
focusing on the present moment and ignoring unwanted thoughts
Somatic stress management: Progressive muscular relaxation
- all main muscle groups are tensed then relaxed in turn
Somatic stress management: Biofeedback
using electronic instruments to measure the body’s physiological changes. Allows them to understand stressors and correct them
breathing control
consciously controlling the rate and depth of breathing to decrease muscle tension and anxiety
Steiners model of group effectiveness equation
Actual productivity = potential productivity - faulty processes
faulty processes (2 categories)
- coordination losses
- motivation losses
the ringleman effect
a faulty process due to a breakdown in teamwork
causes of the Ringleman effect (3 points)
- large group numbers
- lack of timing
- lack of understanding
ways to prevent the Ringlemen effect: large group
allocate clear roles in the team
ways to prevent the Ringlemen effect: Lack of timing
repetition/practice set plays in training
ways to prevent the Ringlemen effect: Lack of understanding of tactics
prioritise effective communication of tactics to team members and select good communicators.
definition of a group
groups are those social aggregates that involve mutual awareness and the potential for interaction
mutual awareness definition
where individuals know about the activities of other group members and the overall progress of the group.
Tuckman’s model of group development: stage 1
forming
- familiarisation stage where group members get to know one another, finding out strengths and weaknesses
Tuckman’s model of group development: stage 2
storming
- question group structure and compete for status
- power struggle, potential conflict, role development
- leads to loss in participation
Tuckman’s model of group development: stage 3
norming
- a need for common goals is recognised and members begin to work together
- increased cohesion, focus on team goals and stabilisation
Tuckman’s model of group development: stage 4
performing
- each member is aware of their role in the team and feels they can contribute to its success.
- increased role awareness, increased understanding and development of intuition
social loafing description
where performer feels ‘lost in the crowd’ and shows avoidance behaviour
characteristics of a social loafer
- hiding on the pitch
- opting out
- being lazy
ways to prevent social loafing (4 points)
- set high standards in the team
- make sure they feel important to the team
- individual goals
- make people accountable for their actions and success.
sociogram description
a method used to select the most cohesive team possible
