Sexual Ethics

Question 1

What were Greek views on sexual ethics?

Answer 1

Some groups celebrated physical pleasure, such as the Cyrenaics, and some rejected physical pleasure as a distraction from or obstacle to spiritual or philosophical progress. This separation between the pure pleasures of the mind and the corrupting pleasures of the body was influential.

Question 2

What themes were seen throughout the Old Testament?

Answer 2

A man’s position and power was measured in the amount of land or property he possessed, and also in the number of offspring that he had. Fidelity and monogamy were not valued that highly for men, as their responsibility was to maintain their power and authority. It was unknown throughout for men in the Ancient Near East to have two or three wives as well as several concubines and probably to have fathered children from all of them.

Question 3

What is a famous example in the Bible where people had many wives and children?

Answer 3

A famous example of this in the Bible is the patriarch Jacob, with his 2 wives, Leah and Rachel, and his two concubines, Bilbah and Ziplah, who produced a large number of children (only 12 males are listed).

Question 4

What is the teaching in Genesis?

Answer 4

The teaching in Genesis is that God created Adam and Eve in his image and part of their purpose was to have sexual relations and to reproduce. It is believed that, prior to the Fall, Adam and Eve had sexual intercourse because it was good in itself; not solely because of sexual desire but because God created them to have sex and to enjoy it.

Question 5

What is particularly interesting about God in this passage?

Answer 5

It is interesting that prior to the Fall Adam and Eve ‘walked’ with God in the Garden of Eden and that he was part of their life. It is suggested that the relationship between Adam and Eve was one that included God as part of its foundation - this is why in Christian marriage ceremonies God is invited to be the third part of the marriage.

Question 6

What did God say after the Fall?

Answer 6

To the woman he said ‘I will greatly multiply your pain in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he should rule over you’.

Question 7

What happened after the Fall?

Answer 7

After the Fall, sex can longer be intrinsically good in itself, but rather must now have an alternative purpose for humanity to pursue: reproduction.

Question 8

Are Old Testament views regarding sex consistent?

Answer 8

The teachings in the Old Testament are not necessarily consistent and it would seem that it is acceptable for a man to control or dominate his wife and to insist that she be a virgin prior to their marriage, yet it seems that a man does not necessarily need to be a virgin.

There are occasions in the Old Testament where sex is used in ways we now consider to be inappropriate, for example the incestuous relationship between Lot and his daughter (Genesis 19) or the adulterous relationship between King David and Bathsheba which led to the death of her husband, Uriah. This example of audultery is one that David is punished for, yet it provides the path from which the birth of Jesus will eventually come.

The Old Testament has a lot to say about homosexuality.

Question 9

What were the Jewish views on sexual ethics found in the New Testament?

Answer 9

The Jewish law had very specific guidelines regarding divorce and adultery, mainly that divorce could be instigated only by the husband and that an adulterous woman should be taken out of the city and stoned to death.

Question 10

What were Jesus’ teachings on divorce?

Answer 10

Jesus’ teachings on the topic of divorce are not entirely clear and are interpreted differently by biblical scholars. It can be read that Jesus allows divorce in certain circumstances and that it is permissible, whilst it can also be interpreted that it is wrong and falls short of the ideal relationship that God intended.

Question 11

What passage causes differences in interpretation of Jesus’ teachings of divorce?

Answer 11

The passage in particular that causes differences in interpretation is Mark 10:11:

‘Whoever divorces his wife and marries another commits adultery against her…’

The interpretation of the word ‘and’ can also mean ‘in order to’, therefore we have a difference in how theologians understand Jesus’ teaching on divorce. So does Jesus permit remarriage after divorce or is it a definite abomination that adultery occurs if a divorce remarries and that it is wrong?

Question 12

What was Jesus principal message?

Answer 12

The principal message of Jesus was one of equality and for all people to be treated in the same way. He also focused on human relationships being centred around their relationship with God, as he explained when he summarised the 10 commandments into the ‘Greatest Commandment’ - ‘Love God with all your heart and love your neighbour as yourself’.

Question 13

What did Paul say?

Answer 13

Paul believed that the second coming of Christ was sooner rather than later and therefore Christians ought to be more focused on spiritual matters rather than physical matters such as sex.

‘Now to the unmarried and the widows I say: It is good for them to stay unmarried, as I am. But if they cannot control themselves, they marry, for it is better to marry than to burn with passion’.

Question 14

What do Christians believe about Paul’s teachings?

Answer 14

Paul’s appeal to the Christians is generally believed to be an appeal to wait for Jesus’ imminent return rather than a blanket admonition that celibacy is better.

Many Christians believe that Paul’s teachings are very sexists in their treatment of women. He insists that women should be obedient and subject to their husbands and also must not speak in church.

Question 15

What do Christian feminists think of Paul’s beliefs?

Answer 15

Christian feminism has much to say about this and the Christian feminist Jocelyn Burrowes believes that Paul’s teachings have provided the basis for womankind’s oppression within the Christian Church for 2000 years. She even goes as far as claiming his theology is misogynistic and based in fear of equality.

Question 16

What do Paul’s other teachings say though?

Answer 16

However, some of Paul’s other teachings emphasise the same equality that Jesus taught.

‘There is no longer Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female; for all are one in Christ Jesus’.

‘For this reason a man leaves his father and mother, and is joined to his wife, and the two become one flesh’.

Question 17

What does Paul’s other believes suggest about him overall?

Answer 17

Paul seems to have believed in the equality between men and woman, yet perhaps the cultural and social setting in which he lived expecting the return of the Messiah, in some way necessitated the more extreme teachings regarding women. It is suggested that Paul was a ‘child of his time’ and one that struggled with the concept of equality that Jesus taught.

Question 18

What sexual imagery can be found in the Bible?

Answer 18

‘His cheeks are as lovely as a garden that is full of herbs and spices. His lips are lilies, wet with liquid myrrh’.

‘His thighs are columns of alabaster set in sockets of gold. He is majestic like the Lebanon Mountains with their towering cedars. His mouth is sweet to kiss;everything about him enchants me’.

‘The curve of your thighs is like the work of an artist’.

‘Your breasts are like twin deer, like two gazelles’.

‘To me your breasts are like bunches of grapes, your breath like the fragrance of apples, and your mouth like the finest wine’.

‘Then let the wine flow straight to my lover, flowing over his lips and teeth. I belong to my lover, and he desires me’.

Question 19

What is the Roman Catholic view regarding sexual ethics?

Answer 19

The Roman Catholic view follows very closely the approach of Aquinas’ Natural Law theory. The purpose of sex is purely for reproduction within a committed married relationship and for nothing else. It is for this reason that Roman Catholicism would teach the moral wrongness and inappropriateness of the following acts:

• Premarital and extramarital sex
• Sex for pleasure
• Homosexual acts
• Use of contraception
• Abortion
• Masturbation

Question 20

What do Roman Catholics believe the purpose of marriage to be?

Answer 20

Roman Catholicism teaches three purposes for marriage: Fides (faithfulness), Proles (reproduction) and Sacramentum (the two becoming one flesh). If an act goes against any of these, then it has no moral basis.

Roman Catholicism has very stringent teachings on divorce and is more absolutist than other Christian denominations. It follows the principle that divorce is never acceptable because:

• the two have become one flesh
• the couple have made sacred vows in front of God that cannot be broken.

However, the marriage may be annulled if the marriage satisfies certain criteria, such as the vows having been made under duress.

Question 21

What is the Liberal Protestantism view regarding sexual ethics?

Answer 21

The Liberal Protestantism interpretation of the biblical teachings is much more allegorical and sees the passages in the Bible providing a basis for good living and giving moral guidance that is not always literal. Liberal Protestants would also take the approach that culture has changed, as have attitudes towards areas of sexuality since the Bible was written. Therefore, Christian teaching must reflect our culture and our times.

Question 22

How do Liberal Protestants view homosexuality?

Answer 22

For some Christian denominations, being a homosexual Christian is not a moral problem. During the 20th century Christian attitudes towards sex became more focused on the idea of love being central to its purpose. This move has provided the impetus for change in liberal Christian approaches to issues of sex and relationships. Rather than requiring marriage for sex, attitudes now hold that if a couple love each other, are committed to the success of the relationship and wish to be together, then it is acceptable to cohabit or to enjoy sexual relationship and wish to be together, then it is acceptable to cohabit or to enjoy sexual relations outside of marriage. They would also encourage the enjoyment of sex for pleasure rather than just for reproduction.

Liberal Christians generally accept that relationships breakdown and therefore, in the best interests of all parties, would agree with the concept of divorce. The idea that sex permeates all of our society is based upon a libertarian idea rather than a religious or moralistic one.

Question 23

What is the Evangelical Protestantism view regarding sexual ethics?

Answer 23

Has similarities with both the Roman Catholic approaches and aspects of the Liberal Protestant teachings. They would accept the sanctity of marriage and the permanence of the marriage relationship, however they would appreciate that sometimes divorce is a ‘necessary evil’ due to irreconcilable differences, for example, domestic abuse of adultery. Their approaches are generally more relativist than those of Roman Catholicism, yet stricter than more Liberal Protestants.

Question 24

What are Evangelical Protestants views in sex and homosexuals?

Answer 24

Evangelicals teach that sexual intercourse is reserved for within a marriage and not for outside. This is for a number of reasons:

• The Bible teaches that within marriage is where sex should take place.
• Having sex should be for reproducing (although not solely) and children should be born and brought up within a marriage.
• The two partners become ‘one flesh’ through sex and marriage.

Evangelicals would be opposed to homosexual sexual relationships as they are not within the confines of marriage and cannot end in the conception of children.

Question 25

What are secular views regarding sexual ethics?

Answer 25

Secular morality doesn’t insist on marriage, sex for reproduction or heterosexuality. It bases itself on a more contractarian approach where, if consent from all those involved is given, then it can be morally acceptable - for example 2 consenting 17 year old men entering into a same sex relationship or 2 adult couples agreeing to swap partners for sexual intercourse. Within this approach the most important principles are the ability to be autonomous and to be free to choose.

The more extreme sexual acts that deny consent from one or more participants (rape or sexual abuse) are not acceptable to libertarian thinkers. Any sexual act involving children is also morally wrong because they are not fully aware of its free will or capable of being autonomous.

Question 26

How did Mill view the Christianisation of marriage?

Answer 26

In time, the social protections provided by the Christianisation of marriage laws came to be viewed as social restraints on freedom by some. In On Liberty, J.S. Mill argued that individuals should be protected from unnecessary legal oversight (the tyranny of political power) and from the social attitudes of the masses (the tyranny of the majority), and should be free to behave as they choose to as long as no one else is harmed by the behaviour. Mill questioned, ‘the nature and limits of power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual’, and argued that individuals who are different should be protected.

Mill maintained that the prevention of harm was the only justification for restraining an individual:

“That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting himself with any evil in case he do otherwise […] In up the part [of life] which merely concerns himself, his independence is, or right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign”.

Question 27

How did Mill view contraception and women’s rights in marriage?

Answer 27

Mill sought to make artificial contraception available to the poor, something prohibited by Christina Churches at the time (and still prohibited by the Catholic Church today.

Yet, Mill was not casual in his attitude to sex. He was not opposed to marriage and, in fact, seems to have shared the concerns that drove the Christianisation of marriage laws, wishing to make marriage fairer. However, he did not believe that society and the Church had gone far enough and he fought for women’s rights and gender equality. He believed marriage should be an equal partnership and he was particularly concerned that the legal, Christian conception of marriage placed constraints on women, oppressing them. In the Subjugation of Women (1869), he argued that society, often via the institution of marriage, relegated women to the status of slaves. He noted, for example, that divorce was used exclusively by men to rid themselves of their wives.

Question 28

What principle did Mill develop?

Answer 28

John Stuart Mill developed the harm principle - the idea that no harm must come to others. He said that if an action only directly affects the persons involved in doing the action, then society has no right to intervene, even if it is believed that those involved are harming themselves. Therefore I am free to take part in any sexual activity as long as it doesn’t cause harm to anyone involved or to a third party. This harm principle is important if two consenting adults wish to begin a sexual relationship, but at least one of them is married. In this case a third party will be hurt and libertarian approach would say this is wrong.

Question 29

What do Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum say?

Answer 29

Sen and Nussbaum go beyond the libertarian notion that the state and society should only intervene on matters that cause harm to others. They developed a capabilities approach to making sense of human development, focusing on the freedoms that human beings need for well-being. These include:

• having bodily integrity, including opportunities for sexual satisfaction
• having emotional attachments to things and people outside ourselves; to love those who love and care for us. This includes not having one’s emotional development blighted by fear and anxiety.

If human well-being requires people to be able to have opportunities for sexual satisfaction and to love and be loved, then there is an ardent argument that human beings should be free to establish consensual sexual relationships with whomsoever they choose, as long as no one is harmed by those relationships. It then remains to decide what causes harm.

Question 30

What libertarian’s think of sexual desire?

Answer 30

For the libertarian, the idea of sexual desire is not intrinsically selfish or sinful, but is a way of bonding two people’s desires and providing a positive psychological connection. Sigmund Freud believed that if people have a healthy sexual relationship that benefits both parties, then they are more likely to be better adjusted to their place in society and therefore more balanced psychologically.

Question 31

Evaluation of a libertarian approach

Answer 31

✅ The contarctarian approach towards sex is very positive, as it permits consenting adults to practice what they wish to do (in-line with free will, autonomy and the harm principle). It deals with issues such as homosexuality, bisexuality, contraception, divorce, cohabitation, marriage, etc, in a very rational way that permits each situation to be based upon its own merits or demerits. The individuals involved deal with the rightness or wrongness of moral acts and they are morally responsible for their own actions. This tolerant approach values each person as an end in themselves - each participant is involved as an agent in themselves with rights and autonomy.

❌ One of the main criticisms levelled at the libertarian approach is that the balance of power in relationships is not always equal. If one participant is not equal in the relationship, then, even though they choose freely to participate in the sexual act, they may only be limited in their choices because of the imbalance in the relationship.

Question 32

What are traditional Christian teaching views on homosexuality?

Answer 32

Traditional Christian teaching views homosexuality as wrong for several reasons. There is no possibility of life arising from the sexual union of same-sex couples, so it is contrary to natural law and/or is seen to undermine the traditional idea of Christian marriage as being between a man and a woman for, in part, the purposes of bringing new life into the world. Same-sex marriages have not been permitted in many churches and so any kind of homosexual sex has taken place outside marriage - which is sinful, just as all other forms of sex outside marriage are sinful.

Question 33

Examples of scripture that talk about homosexuality

Answer 33

There are specific scriptural sources that imply a divine command against sex acts between men. Leviticus says, ‘Do not have sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman; that is detestable’ (Leviticus 18:22) and it is punishable by death (Leviticus 20:13).

Deuteronomy 23:17-18 prohibits the practice of shrine prostitution, where men and and women are available to have sex with men for money. In Genesis 19:4-11, God destroys the city of Sodom, where licentious sexual acts, including male same sex acts, we’re taking place.

In Romans 1:21-31, St Paul writes of people giving themselves over to ‘shameful lusts’, the product of a ‘depraved mind’:
“Even their women exchanged natural sexual relations for unnatural ones. In the same way the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one another. Men committed shameful acts with other men”.

And, in a letter to the Corinthians Paul writes that ‘men who have sex with men’ will not inherit the Kingdom of God. The Bible sees homosexuality as a shameful condition of uncontrollable and unnatural lust (Romans 1:26-27), for which the sufferer should receive sympathy and be helped to find a cure.

Question 34

What is the disagreement about using the Bible when talking about homosexuality?

Answer 34

There is much disagreement about whether these biblical passages should be integrated as propositions or understood in the context in which they were written. Many of the homosexual acts described in the Bible are between men who are either already married and are, therefore, adulterous, or acts with prostitutes. The biblical texts do not describe relationships between two people in an exclusive committed relationship.

In the Ancient Greek world men commonly had sex with other men in addition to the sexual relationships they had with their wives. The prevailing model for same-sex relationships in the Greco-Roman era also involved pederasty (sex between a man and a prepubescent boy). There is also an absence of any reference to lesbian relationships in the Bible. These sexual acts might well be described as immoral on the grounds of consent or adultery, but it is arguably unwise to take these moral judgements out of the biblical context in which they were originally made and apply them to a very different time and culture to influence p modern debates about homosexuality and ethics. After all, the biblical texts may tell us more about the culture that the authors lived in than divine will.

Question 35

What does Gareth Moore point out about the choosing of which passages to be considered relevant?

Answer 35

Other Old Testament rules are not so emphatically enforced by Christians today. Gareth Moore writes that while Christians are happy to follow the law set out in Leviticus, which says that it is immoral for a man to lie with a man, they reject the passage later on that advocates beheading as a punishment. Christian’s also ignore the requirement in Leviticus 19:19 that forbids the wearing of garments made of two kinds of material. Moore argues that we are ignoring the laws that we find inconvenient while pursuing those that attack minorities that we do not like. Moore think that Scripture is being used inconsistently to reinforce prejudices.

Question 36

What did the Anglican Church say about homosexuality?

Answer 36

The Church of England opposes same-sex marriage, and requires gay and lesbian clergy who are in same-sex relationships to remain celibate.

The Anglican communion is divided on the subject of homosexuality. The worldwide Anglican community has debated the issue of gay priests and gay marriage and commented that the ordination of ‘practising homosexuals and the blessing of same sex unions calls into question the authority of Holy Scripture’,

However, Gene Robinson was elected bishop of the Diocese of New Hampshire in the Episcopal Church in the USA in 2004. He was the first priest in an openly gay relationship to be consecrated bishop in a major Christian denomination. Nevertheless, in England, in 2003, Jeffrey John became the first person in an openly same sex relationship to be nominated as a Church of England bishop, but he withdrew his acceptance of the nomination due to the controversy it caused.

Question 37

What are some issues the Church of England are really divide on?

Answer 37

In Some Issues in Human Sexuality: A Guide to the Debate, the House of Bishops Group noted that the Church of England remained divided on homosexuality, noting real disagreements about:

• whether homosexual relationships can have ethical validity
• whether it is right to give a blessing to long term same sex relationships
• wether practising homosexual acts are suitable for ordination
• whether the normal requirements of heterosexual monogamy are applicable to bisexuals
• whether a person’s God given sexual identity is determined by their physical nature or self-perception

In 2017, the Bishops of the Church of England issued a statement which reaffirms that marriage is between one man and one women, although it also seeks to affirm the place of gay men and lesbian women in the Church and states that some penitence is appropriate for some of the treatment received by gay and lesbian people. It continues to affirm that a minister of the Church of England may not conduct a same-sex marriage although a minister may pray with the couple after a state ceremony. Clergy who are in same sex relationships are expected to remain celibate. However, when the Bishop’s proposal was put to a vote before General Synod, it was rejected.

Question 38

What did the Catholic Church say about homosexuality?

Answer 38

The Catholic Church maintains that there is no sin involved in an inclination towards a member of the same sex, as such an inclination is not freely chosen and is a trial. Homosexual people should be treated with respect, compassion and sensitivity, and unjust discrimination should be avoided. The Catholic Church teaches that such people are called to chastity and with the help of friendship, prayer and grace will achieve Christian perfection.

Pope Francis confirmed that he considers there to be no grounds for considering the recognition of homosexual unions:

“… there are absolutely no grounds for considering homosexual unions to be in any way similar or even remotely analogous to God’s plan for marriage and family”.

Kate Saunders and Peter Stanford argue that the words of some Catholic cardinals about homosexuals in the past fuelled intolerance. For example, in 1991, the Polish Cardinal Glemp referred to homosexuals as ‘backyard mongrels’. Arcigay, an Italian gay rights group, has linked the Church’s teaching with violent expressions of intolerance. Arcigay estimates that, each year, between 150 and 200 gay men are murdered in Italy because of their sexual orientation. However Pope Francis has argued that the Church should apologise for the harm it has done to gay people and also has said:

‘If a person is gay and seeks God and has good will, who am I to judge?’

Question 39

Changing Christian moral thought on homosexuality

Answer 39

Some Churches have sought explicitly to welcome homosexual people. The United Methodist Church instructs that:

“The United Methodist Church doesn’t condone the practice of homosexuality and considers this practice incompatible with Christian teaching. We affirm that God’s grace is available to all. We will seek to live together in Christian community, welcoming, forgiving, and loving one another, as Christ has loved and accepted us. We implore families and churches not to reject or condemn lesbian and gay members and friends. We commit ourselves to be in ministry for and with all persons”.

Some Christian churches and thinkers have gone further by maintaining that the guilty of the relationship (be it heterosexual or homosexual) is what determines its moral value. They dispute a biblical basis for Christian opposition to homosexuality and reject the natural law approach as unsound. They draw on the teaching in Genesis that all are made ‘in the image of God’. If God creates men and women as homosexuals, they argue, then that nature and inclination must be good. Otherwise, it would suggest that God intentionally creates disordered human beings.

Question 40

What does Gareth Moore point out about the Bible and its mission towards the marginalised?

Answer 40

Gareth Moore argues that there is a Christian basis for an inclusive attitude towards homosexuals, because Christianity is a religion that positively seeks to make room for the marginalised and outcast in society (see 1 Cor 1:26-28).

Question 41

What did B.A.Robinson say about human rights?

Answer 41

On the website www.religioustolerance.org, B.A.Robinson notes that liberal Christians within the Methodist Church consider gay and lesbian ordination and same sex marriage as civil rights issues. If human rights are for all, then ordination and marriage should be available to gay people as well as heterosexual people. They maintain that homosexuality is normal and natural, and is not changeable or freely chosen.

Question 42

What did the General assembly of the United Reformed Church of the UK do?

Answer 42

On Saturday, 9 July 2016, the General assembly of the United Reformed Church of the UK empowered its ministers to conduct and register marriages for same sex couples. Reverend John Proctor, General Secretary of the UCR, said:

“Those of our churches who now wish to offer full marriage services to same-sex couples are free to do just that - and those churches who do not wish to are not compelled to. All are part of this denomination”.

Question 43

Discussion of more radical change

Answer 43

Beyond the practical policy of Christian Churches, scholars are discussing the prospect of a more radical change in Christian thinking. Scholars, such as Richard Hay, have examined whether Acts 10-15 is relevant to the question of whether or not homosexuality should be accepted as a normal part of Christian life. In the verses, Peter and Paul debate whether or not gentiles could become Christians without first becoming Jews. The decision to allow gentiles to become Christian without having to be circumcised and without following the traditional Jewish food rules became a turning point in the development of Christianity which up until then had been a Jewish movement. Christianity radically reinterpreted the Hebrew Scriptures in this debate, making aspects of Jewish law for a new non-Jewish Christians. Jeffrey Siker concludes that it is appropriate to regard homosexual Christians in the same way as gentiles were regarded in the past and incorporate them fully into the Christian community.

Question 44

What is the BASIC natural law view of sex within marriage, premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexual sex?

Answer 44

Sex within marriage: “The Church, nevertheless, in urging men to the observance of the precepts of the natural law, which it interprets by its constant doctrine, teaches that each and every marital act must of necessity retain its intrinsic relationship to the procreation of human life” - Pope Paul VI

Premarital sex: Bringing new life into the world outside of marriage does not ensure a child is nurtured in a stable, committed loving relationship.

Extra-marital sex: Extra-marital sex is morally wrong because it does not support Aquinas’ precepts, it is not good for sustaining a flourishing human society.

Homosexual act: Homosexual sex cannot bring forth new life.

Question 45

Natural Law and Sexual Ethics

Answer 45

Acts are judged right or wrong in relation to the extent to which they meet their ultimate end. The process of judging what is right or wrong involves the use of reason, and reason leads us towards doing good. According to Aquinas, reason, reflecting on the world, reveals that certain primary precepts are good: protecting life, ensuring reproduction, education, and loving God. The creation of new life is central to the purpose of sex and marriage, and the unifying aspect of lovemaking must not be separated from procreation.

“[A]n act of mutual love which impairs the capacity to transmit life which God the Creator, through, specific laws, has built into it frustrates His design which constitutes the norm of marriage and contradicts the will of the Author of life” - Pope Paul VI

Sex is linked to new life, to stability, community and commitment. According to the Catholic Church, homosexual sex cannot bring forth new life into the world; outside of marriage does not ensure a child is nurtured in a stable, committed loving relationship. Homosexual sex, premarital sex, extramarital sex and sex using contraceptives are, therefore, morally wrong according to natural law because they do not support Aquinas’ precepts. Sex might feel good in these situations, but this is an apparent good because the primary purposes of sex are frustrated.

It is argued that positive effects of a unifying sexual act between a loving couple are a good enough reason for sex without the need to focus on reproduction, especially in the modern age where women live longer and can therefore live more adult years being non fertile than fertile. Sexual acts often cannot lead to reproduction: in the non-fertile part of the menstrual cycle , after the menopause, when one or both partners are infertile, or when the woman is pregnant. And, if reproduction is not an intrinsic purpose of sex, then natural law no longer opposes homosexual sex. If some human beings flourish in same sex relationships perhaps the precepts need to be reviewed?

Burton M. Leiser argues that sexual acts may have multiple purposes and he questions why every sexual act should be required to simultaneously fulfil every purpose. Sexual organs are suited for reproduction and for the production of intense pleasure in oneself and others and, Leiser argues, if the purpose of sexual organs is only reproduction then marriage between elderly couples who cannot have children is unnatural. Condemning people for using their sexual organs to unite in pleasure reveals the prejudices and irrational taboos in our society.

Furthermore, an argument could be made that, under natural law, extramarital sex could be moral, as a way of resolving infertility. For example, in the Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham sired a child by his servant girl Hagar when his wife Sarah, was believed to be barren. In this way, surrogate mothers offer the possibility of reproduction when infertility prevents it. Surrogate sex may be extramarital sex, but is not necessarily against natural law.

Question 46

What is the BASIC Situation ethics view of sex within marriage, premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexual sex?

Answer 46

Sex within marriage: Situation ethics is ostensibly concerned with matters of selfless unconditional love and, although this is not the same as erotic love, it is sensitive to deep love between individuals, even if that love does not manifest itself in the traditionally recognised form of deep love between a heterosexual married couple.

Premarital sex: A premarital sex relationship might be viewed as good in some circumstances, for instance, a wife, whose husband has early onset Alzheimer’s disease and is in a care home, may find comfort in a premarital/extramarital relationship while continuing to care for her husband. Casual sex would be seen as morally wrong as it is based on lust rather than love.

Extra-marital sex: An extra-marital relationship might be viewed as good in some circumstances. For instance, a wife, whose husband has early onset Alzheimer’s disease and is in a care home, may find comfort in an extramarital relationship while continuing to care for her husband. Casual sex would be seen as morally wrong as it is based on lust rather than love.

Homosexual sex: If a same sex couple can only find a meaningful relationship with one another then that would be the end that justifies breaking the rules on who can have sexual relationships.

Question 47

Situation ethics and sexual ethics

Answer 47

Joseph Fletcher used the example of a woman who asked a guard to have sex with her and impregnate her so she could be freed from a prisoner of war camp, and the example of a spy who has to have sex with an enemy agent in order to bring a war to an end to argue that, despite the fact that neither encounter involved in a life long commitment or exclusive love, both could be seen as ethical in the circumstances. Fletcher’s examples were criticised as being exceptional examples that were not a suitable basis for a general moral theory.

Situation ethics focuses on the particular situation, the interests of the individual person, and love and justice and, might, therefore, permit the breaking of traditional moral rules around sex in day to day situations. It would seek a pragmatic approach to premarital and extramarital sec and same sex unions, setting aside fixed moral truths in order to put the person and their relationships at the heart of each decision.

The fact that heterosexual married couples are often viewed as the only form that a legitimate relationship can take would be viewed as unjust.

Situation ethics puts the need of the primary protagonist first, which makes it difficult for it protect broader family interests and the interests of society as a whole. For example, parents who have extramarital affairs are putting the happiness of their husband or wife and their children at risk, undermining their own relationship with betrayal, and endangering the security of the upbringing of the children. It might be the most loving thing to do to allow premarital sexual relationships, but what happens if the female partner becomes pregnant and she and her child are abandoned by the male partner? There is, therefore, a danger to vulnerable people in the more sexually permissive society that situation ethics would encourage. If situation ethics cannot protect the vulnerable and the young from exploitation, then it’s claims to be about love and justice will not stand up to scrutiny.

Question 48

What is the BASIC Kantian ethics view of sex within marriage, premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexual sex?

Answer 48

Sex within marriage: The consensual promises made by two people getting married to commit to each other permanently and exclusively, are very much in line with Kant’s ethics. They look forward to the kingdom of ends where people respect marriage bonds.

Premarital sex: According to Kant, our actions must be universalisable (good for all people in all situations) and these principles can be applied to all relationships, irrespective of the gender of the participants in the relationship or whether the couple are married or not.

Extramarital sex: Premarital and extramarital sex could be problematic from a Kantian perspective. Kant is concerned that human beings are not used, that they are always treated with dignity. Premarital and extramarital sex involve sexual relationships that are outside normative social rules. Additional rules, based on Kantian ethics might focus on the importance of mutuality, freely given consent, commitment and exclusivity.

Homosexual sex: The Kantian principle of treating every human person with dignity would require all sexual relationships, including homosexual relationships, to be treated equally. Universalising reproduction as a requirement of sex would, however, make homosexual sex unethical.

Question 49

Kantian ethics and sexual ethics

Answer 49

Freedom, or autonomy, is at the heart of Kant’s ethics, placing consent as the heart of a Kantian approach to sexual ethics. They focus on the worth of the 2 human beings involved and encourage them to be attentive to each other and to not treat each other as a means to and end, for pleasure or social convenience. In contrast, any sexual act that is not consensual, including sexual assaults like rape and forced marriage, would be prohibited. The human person is of the highest moral worth for Kant, and must be treated with dignity. Therefore, sex that objectifies a person and does not express the utmost consideration for them would be unethical because sexual relationships, like all relationships, must be based on equality.

Premarital and extramarital sex involve sexual relationships that are outside normative social rules. And, if you believe social rules exist to protect the vulnerable, sex not governed by those rules is more risky for some; it opens up the possibility that the person with less power in the relationship will be abused. Although allowing premarital and extramarital sex increases individual freedom, something Kant thought was important, it also increases the requirement for the individuals involved to conduct themselves ethically and take their moral duty towards each other seriously, another central concern for Kant.

Question 50

What is the BASIC utilitarian view of sex within marriage, premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexual sex?

Answer 50

Sex within marriage: Bentham wanted greater well-being for everyone. Thus, marriage rules protect the poor by restraining the sexual behaviour of the powerful towards those with no social power. For example, women are protected by the public nature of marriage and the prohibitions against premarital and extramarital sex from men (who are generally more powerful in a patriarchal society) who might want to use them for personal pleasure.

Premarital sex: If the application of utilitarian resulted in maximising pleasure, and everyone freely chose to use contraception, then society as a whole would suffer and happiness for the greatest number would not be achieved.

Extramarital sex: The rules against premarital and extramarital sex are designed to foster the best possible environment for bringing up children.

Homosexual sex: Although sexual identity is being understood more and more as something fluid, the majority identify as heterosexual. Utilitarians might, therefore, argue that homosexuality should be prohibited in the interests of the majority, especially if the majority view it as harmful to society. However… (see flash card 51)

Question 51

Utilitarianism and sexual ethics

Answer 51

If happiness is equated with hedonistic pleasure, rather than a wider scene of well being and happiness, then utilitarianism could be used to legitimise a free, unregulated approach to sexual behaviour. This is because giving people licence to have sex in and out of marriage and irrespective of sexual orientation can, arguably, maximise pleasure. However, free love can lead to unhappiness, particularly if it results in the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, shallow or unfulfilling relationships, or unwanted pregnancies. Pleasure could quickly begin to cause unhappiness to many people.

However, Bentham wanted greater well being for everyone. Thus, marriage rules protect the poor by restraining the sexual behaviour of the powerful towards those with no social power.

If the application of utilitarianism resulted in maximising pleasure, and everyone freely chose to use contraception and not have have children, then society as a whole would suffer and happiness for the ethical rules about sexual behaviour that facilitate reproduction.

Although sexual identity is being understood more and more as something fluid, the majority identity as heterosexual. Utilitarians might, therefore, argue that homosexuality should be prohibited in the interests of the majority, especially if the majority view it as harmful to society. However, John Stuart Mill believed it was important to prevent mass social prejudice restricting the rights and happiness of individuals. His focus on qualitative measures of happiness, on measuring the worth of different pleasures and pains, would place the pleasure and happiness of the homosexual minority above the pain of those who oppose homosexuality and would prevent mob instincts governing the lives of those who are different.

Question 52

Do religious beliefs and practices concerning sex and relationships have a continuing role in the area of sexual ethics?

Answer 52

Most societies and cultures are influenced by religiously framed ethical value systems and these affect the laws relating to marriage, divorce and homosexuality. This results in the criminalisation of extramarital and homosexual sex, and in Sudan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Mauritania, Afghanistan, Pakistan etc being gay or bisexual is punishable by death.

Many ethical values based on religious beliefs and practices correspond with modern secular ethical values. For instance, Christian rules about the importance and sanctity of marriage were, in part, developed to protect women from practices such as concubinage and to prevent women from being abandoned, often pregnant, after betrothal but before marriage. Christian marriage values consent, and the regulation of sexual relationships through marriage was an attempt to make sexual relationships more just. Ensuring sexual relationships are consensual are just as important today amongst people with different and no religious beliefs. For example, in Personal, Social and Health Education classes teachers are encouraged to teach about the importance of consent in sexual relationships, and the law makes non-consensual sexual acts illegal.

However, in the UK, the link between Christian values and the law is coming under pressure. For example, the law no longer reflects traditional Christian position towards homosexuality. Homosexual sex was decriminalised in 1967, the age of consent for homosexual sex is in line with the age of consent for heterosexual consent, and same sex marriages are now legal. It can, therefore, be argued that there is no place for religious beliefs and practices concerning sex and relationships in the area of sexual ethics.

Ethics is not only concerned with how society as a whole behaves, it is also concerned with personal conduct. If religion is understood as a way of life that individuals choose to follow freely, then to ignore it in matters of sex would seem to relegate it to the margins of life which would be unacceptable because sex touches on the fundamentals of human nature, on human identity, human happiness and the future of humanity. There is, therefore, a juggling act for Christians when it comes to ethical obligations promoted by their religion but not supported by law or by the prevailing culture in which they live.

Question 53

Should choices in the area of sexual behaviour be entirely private and personal or should they be subject to societal norms and legislation?

Answer 53

Sex is never exclusively private. Not only does a sexual ‘relationship’ involve another person, but, because human beings are sexual beings, the way people live their sex lives affects how they relate to wider society. A society that advocates extramarital sex, for example, would put marriages at risk, and marriage break-ups can have significant negative consequences for both the adults and any children involved. Wider society also plays a role in supporting particular sexual relationships through, for example, providing tax breaks to married couples. The link between sex and reproduction also adds an additional social dimension; the most private and intimate acts between people are also the way life and society is created. Therefore, sex is both private and public.

Utilitarians seek to maximise happiness for the greater number of people, but are in danger of allowing the majority to determine rules that will blind some into unhappy situations, notably those who are homosexual. Libertarians want to free individuals from this kind of restriction, and Mill advances higher qualities of good as something that the majority must respect. He places the happiness of the minority above the pain of the majority in order to ensure that the rules do not condemn the minority to unhappiness. However, such freedoms might threaten social organisations. For Kant, in contrast to legal rules, social rules may not always reflect the correct principles, but moral people should act as if they do (as if they lived in a kingdom of ends). Natural law would argue for the establishment of moral laws governing sex. Of the four ethical theories examined, situation ethics is the most permissive and accepting if the concept of sexual behaviour as private and personal because it was devised to permit the setting aside of social rules if that is the most loving thing to do.

Questions remain about whether any of these ethical theories can help to fully resolve the issues surrounding premarital, extramarital and homosexual sex currently under debate in contemporary society.

Question 54

Are normative theories useful in what they might say about sexual ethics?

Answer 54

Situation ethics provides a way of thinking about the morality of sex in extreme circumstances where it might be the most loving thing to do break the prevailing social rule. It focuses on the individual, on the person or people involved in very specific, and potentially desperate, situations. It makes space for those who are different. Because it is designed to deal with exceptions, it does not clearly articulate how the social implications of sexual relationships should be addressed.

In contrast natural law places the needs of the community and importance of creating a good society above individual personal concerns. It offers an approach that is focused on establishing clear rules for society. It provides a system for making sense of all moral behaviour, yet it is forgiving enough to recognise that human beings sometimes make mistakes when it acknowledge that people may do things wrongly believing they are right. However, natural law might be used in ways that narrowly define the purpose of human beings and can, therefore, be used to create rules that are too prescriptive in its search for uniformity.

Utilitarianism seeks the greatest happiness for the greatest number. This might encourage a free approach to sex if happiness is equated with pleasure, although it is arguable whether ‘free love’ necessarily produces the deep happiness that can be found in more meaningful, committed relationships. Utilitarians who seek to measure pleasure qualitatively would limit the extent to which the majority could control or limit the freedoms of the minority. Utilitarianism takes a societal view of morality, which perhaps makes it less useful when it comes to personal questions of sexuality.

Kantian ethics offers principles for every aspect of human life and seeks to ensure that social and legal rules take account and legal rules take account of the importance of freedom and human dignity. Kantian ethics emphasises an individual’s responsibility to act ethically and the need for a universal approach to morality. Kant’s approach to ethics does not prescribe particular rules, it prescribed the principles that underpin those rules and is, arguably, the most adaptable of the four ethical theories as a result. It can inform both personal choices and law, and it recognises both the inherent value of the individual human life and also the importance of ensuring people live with each other and treat other fairly.