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Psych 211 (neuro) > Sex > Flashcards

Sex Flashcards

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1
Q

What is sexual dimorphism?

A
  • the condition where the two sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics beyond the differences in their sexual organs
  • differences may be subtle or exaggerated and can include differences in size, weight, color, behavior and cognition
  • associated with genetic and hormonal differences, both before and after birth
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2
Q

What is the triplewart seadevil?

A
  • female is big large fish
  • male is just a tiny, rudimentary creature that lives on his lady friend parasitically - basically just a sperm-producing appendage
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3
Q

What are sexual dimorphic behaviours?

A
  • behaviors that take different forms, or occur with different probabilities, or under different circumstances across males and females of the same species
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4
Q

What are the most striking category of sexual dimorphic behaviors in mammals?

A
  • reproductive behaviors
  • courting, mating, parenting, and most forms of aggression
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5
Q

What are differences in human behaviour?

A
  • differences between the sexes, on average, in their mixture of talents, temperaments, and interests
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6
Q

What is the brain in terms of sex?

A
  • a sexually dimorphic organ
  • gives rise to sexual dimorphic behaviors
  • average size and interconnectivity of different brain regions vary according to sex
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7
Q

Why are there sex differences in the brain?

A
  • can be the result of biology, socialization, and the interaction of the two
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8
Q

What is sex?

A
  • defined at birth by the presence of particular sex chromosomes, sex hormones, and sex organs
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9
Q

What is gender?

A
  • the range of characteristics that pertain to, and differentiate between, masculinity and femininity
  • these characteristics reflect biology and culture
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10
Q

What is a gender expressions?

A
  • expression of masculinity and femininity
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11
Q

What is a gender role?

A
  • the behaviors and attitudes that are deemed typical, appropriate, or desirable for people of a given sex
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12
Q

What is sexual behaviour?

A
  • the actual sex acts performed by the individual
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13
Q

What is sexual orientation?

A
  • one’s enduring romantic or sexual attractions
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14
Q

What is sexual identity?

A
  • an individual’s conception of themselves in terms of whether they identify (or not) with a sexual orientation
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15
Q

What is gender identity?

A
  • one’s personal sense of their gender
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16
Q

Why is gender a social construct?

A
  • consensual rules for determining gender (and race) designations differ across time and across cultures in a manner that is independent of changes in biology
  • our brains and our behaviours (as well as our conceptions of them) are complex outcomes of both biological and cultural influences
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17
Q

How do culture and biology determine gender?

A
  • strength of the culture determines the strength of the biological influences
  • biological differences are most influential in cultures where everyone is treated the same and gender isn’t taught
  • cultures with strong and specific ideas about gender tend to mask the complexity and variability of the biology
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18
Q

How do we socialize children?

A
  • we pre-emptively encourage/discourage certain behaviours to ensure their expression is congruent with our values and the dominant culture
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19
Q

What is reproduction?

A
  • involves sex and the fusion of specialized cells known as gametes (one from each parent)
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20
Q

What are gametes?

A
  • mature reproductive cells made by gonads
  • they are either ova or sperm
  • only have one copy of each chromosome
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21
Q

What are gonads?

A
  • ovaries or testes
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22
Q

What are ova?

A
  • egg cells
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23
Q

What are the sex chromosomes?

A
  • one pair of chromosomes
  • determine the organism’s sex
  • come in X and Y varieties (XX or YY)
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24
Q

What are the sex chromosomes for females?

A

XX

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25
Q

What are the sex chromosomes for males?

A

XY

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26
Q

What are the 5 factors present at birth that determine biological sex?

A
  • sex chromosomes
  • gonads
  • sex hormones
  • internal reproductive anatomy
  • external anatomy
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27
Q

What are the 3 categories of sex organs?

A
  • gonads
  • internal reproductive anatomy
  • external anatomy
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28
Q

What are intersex conditions?

A
  • atypical combination of the five factors used to determine biological sex
  • person cannot be distinctly identified as male or female
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29
Q

What do embryos contain?

A
  • precursors for both female and male sex organs
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30
Q

What are undifferentiated gonads?

A
  • Embryonic precursor of ovaries/testes
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31
Q

What is the Mullerian system?

A
  • Embryonic precursors of female internal sex organs
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32
Q

What is the Wolffian system?

A
  • Embryonic precursors of male internal sex organs
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33
Q

What happens during the second month of gestation?

A
  • the undifferentiated gonads typically develop into ovaries or testes
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34
Q

What happens during the third month of gestation?

A
  • either the Müllerian or Wolffian system develops while the other withers away
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35
Q

How do the male sex organs develop?

A
  • the SRY gene
  • development of testes
  • embryonic testicular release of anti-Mullerian hormone and androgens (testosterone)
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36
Q

What is the SRY gene?

A
  • normally located on the Y chromosome
  • encodes a protein that causes undifferentiated fetal gonads to develop into testes
  • gene overpowers XX-ovary instructions, so XXY individuals develop testes
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37
Q

What is the defeminizing effect?

A
  • Effect of anti-Müllerian hormone early in development, which prevents development of the female-typical internal anatomy
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38
Q

What does anti-Mullerian hormone do?

A
  • Stops development of Mullerian system
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39
Q

What is the masculizing effect?

A
  • Effect of androgen hormones early in development, which triggers development of male-typical anatomy
40
Q

What are androgens?

A
  • Male sex hormones
  • Testosterone
  • released by the testes, and it triggers development of the Wolffian system
  • Some testosterone is converted into dihydrotestosterone, which is what triggers development of external male sex anatomy
41
Q

What do androgens do?

A
  • Triggers development of male sex organs
  • Wolffian system develops
  • external genitalia develop
42
Q

How do female sex organs develop?

A
  • XX chromosome
  • development of ovaries
  • largely silent until puberty
  • no anti Mullerian hormone = Mullerian system develops into internal female reproductive anatomy
  • no androgen release = external female sex organs develop while the Wolffian system withers away
43
Q

What is puberty triggered by?

A
  • hormones released from gonads
44
Q

What is Turner syndrome?

A
  • when you only have one sex chromosome (X0)
  • gonads do not develop (nether testes nor ovaries)
  • female-typical sex organs develop normally
  • infertile
  • do not naturally experience puberty
  • associated with other developmental abnormalities on account of missing a full chromosome
45
Q

What is Swyer syndrome?

A
  • when you are XY but have a bad SRY gene
  • gonads do not develop (nether testes nor ovaries)
  • female-typical sex organs develop normally
  • infertile
  • do not naturally experience puberty
46
Q

What happens when there are two or more X chromosomes with an SRY gene?

A
  • results in typical male development patterns but also infertility
47
Q

What happens when there is XY chromosomes and SRY gene but insufficient anti-Mullerian hormone signaling?

A
  • will cause insufficient anatomical defeminization
  • both male and female internal sex organs will develop and get tangled together
  • often functional external male genitalia
  • Mullerian and Wolffian systems both develop and androgens cause external male organs to develop
48
Q

What is androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A
  • results in anatomical defeminization with partial or no masculinization
  • anti-Mullerian hormone makes Mullerian system wither away
  • no androgens cause Wolffian system to wither away and cause external female organs to develop
49
Q

What happens in severe cases of androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A
  • no internal sex organs develop
  • people typically develop normal external female genitalia and identify as heterosexual women
  • infertile and have a short vagina
50
Q

What happens in mild cases of androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A
  • the external genitalia is fully masculinized
51
Q

What happens in intermediate cases of androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A
  • ambiguous external genitalia
52
Q

What are organizational effects?

A
  • Sex hormones influence the development of the body and brain
  • These effects are permanent and put you on a particular trajectory going forward
53
Q

What are the types of organizational effects?

A
  • behavioural defeminization
  • behavioural masculinization
54
Q

What is behavioural defeminization?

A
  • organizational effect of androgens on the brain that prevent animals from displaying female-typical behaviors in adulthood
55
Q

What is behavioural masculinization?

A
  • organizational effect of androgens on the brain that enables animals to engage in male-typical behaviors in adulthood
56
Q

What are activational effects?

A
  • Puberty causes sex hormones to be released by the gonads, which influence both body and mind
  • production of sperm, ovulation, and general horniness
  • How the mind and body respond to activational hormone signaling in adulthood depends on how the body and brain were organized by hormone signaling in utero
57
Q

What is kisspeptin?

A
  • Neuropeptide produced by neurons in the hypothalamus
  • initiates puberty
  • maintains reproductive ability
  • triggering release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone
58
Q

What is gonadotropin-releasing hormone?

A
  • Hypothalamic hormone
  • stimulates anterior pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropic hormones
59
Q

What are gonadotropic hormones?

A
  • Hormones of pituitary gland
  • have stimulating effect on cells of gonads
60
Q

What are the types of gonadotropic hormones?

A
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
61
Q

How does testosterone impact males?

A
  • normal levels of testosterone, males can be fertile
  • without testosterone, sperm production ceases, and so does the ability to have sex
  • castrated male rat will cease sexual activity, but it can be reinstated with an injection of testosterone
62
Q

What happens when men take a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist?

A
  • not show testicular release of androgens
  • have a decrease in sexual interest and intercourse
63
Q

What is estrogen?

A
  • class of sex hormones released by the ovaries
  • cause maturation of the physical features and characteristic of females
64
Q

What is estradiol?

A
  • principal estrogen of many mammals, including humans
  • starts being released at onset of puberty
65
Q

What are menstrual and estrous cycles controlled by?

A
  • the two ovarian hormones estradiol and progesterone
66
Q

What is the menstrual cycle?

A
  • female reproductive cycle of most primates, humans
  • characterized by menstruation, concealed ovulation, and the absence of a mating season
  • sexual arousal is somewhat influenced by ovarian hormones, but ability to mate is not
  • exhibit sexual activity throughout the cycle
67
Q

What is the estrous cycle?

A
  • Female reproductive cycle of most mammals
  • not menstruate; they reabsorb their endometrium
  • display clear outward signs of ovulation and fertility
  • typically only sexually active during the estrous cycle phase of their cycle (being in heat)
  • change in physiology and behavior alters the behavior of nearby males
68
Q

How can we masculinize or feminize the brain of rodents?

A
  • by altering hormone signaling immediately after birth, after the anatomical development of their sex organs is complete
69
Q

What happens when male rodents are castrated at birth?

A
  • develop some female-typical behaviours
70
Q

What happens when castrated male rodents are injected with female sex hormone in adulthood?

A
  • try to get other males to have sex with them
71
Q

What happens when non-castrated male rodents are injected with female sex hormones?

A
  • have relatively small behavioural consequences
72
Q

What happens when female rodents are given injections of estrogen and progesterone when fully grown?

A
  • result in female sexual behaviour
73
Q

What happens when female rodents are given injections of testosterone when fully grown?

A
  • no resulting sexual behaviour
74
Q

What happens when female rodents are given injections of testosterone at birth and estrogen and progesterone when fully grown?

A
  • no resulting sexual behaviour
  • defiminization
75
Q

What happens when female rodents are given injections of testosterone at birth and again when fully grown?

A
  • results in male sexual behaviour
  • masculinization
76
Q

What are adrenal glands?

A
  • present in men and women
  • secrete a small amount of androgens
  • some people’s adrenal glands secrete abnormally large amounts of androgens, which can start either before or after birth
77
Q

What happens when there is excess androgen signaling from adrenal glands in males?

A
  • has minimal effect
  • their testes already secrete tons of androgens
78
Q

What happens when there is excess androgen signaling from adrenal glands in females?

A
  • can cause some degree of masculinization of either the body or brain or both
  • sex organs can become slightly masculinized
  • brain anatomy and function can also be masculinized
79
Q

What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?

A
  • excess androgen signaling from adrenal glands present at birth
80
Q

What is CAH in females?

A
  • have a higher likelihood of identifying as a man and being sexual attracted to women
81
Q

What can sexual orientation and gender identity be determined by?

A
  • the timing and effectiveness of androgen signaling in the brain during early development
82
Q

What is the female sexual behaviour neural circuitry pathway?

A

VMH → PAG → nPGi → motor neurons in spinal cord

83
Q

What is the VMH?

A
  • ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus
  • large nucleus in hypothalamus
  • plays essential role in female sexual behavior
84
Q

What does the VMH do in rodents?

A
  • Electrical stimulation of VMH facilitates female sexual behavior
  • Injections of estradiol and progesterone directly into VMH also stimulates sexual behavior, even in females whose ovaries have been removed
  • Female with bilateral lesions of VMH will not display lordosis, even if she is treated with estradiol and progesterone
85
Q

What is the male sexual behaviour neural circuitry pathway?

A

mPOA → PAG → nPGi → motor neurons in spinal cord

86
Q

What is the mPOA?

A
  • Medial Preoptic Area
  • Nucleus in the anterior hypothalamus
  • plays essential role in male sexual behavior
87
Q

What does the mPOA do in rodents?

A
  • Electrical stimulation of mPOA in rodents elicits male copulatory behavior
88
Q

What is the sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN)?

A
  • within the mPOA
  • preoptic area
  • nucleus is much larger in males than in females
89
Q

What happens when the mPOA is lesioned in female rats?

A
  • does not affect their sexual behavior
  • does cause them to ignore their offspring
90
Q

How many mammalian species form long-lasting, fairly monogamous pair bonds?

A
  • 5%
91
Q

What does the formation of pair bonds relate to?

A

two peptides in brain:
- vasopressin
- oxytocin

92
Q

What are vasopressin and oxytocin?

A
  • compounds/peptides in brain
  • released as neuropeptides in the brain
  • released as hormones in the blood
  • levels are elevated during sex, childbirth, and breastfeeding
93
Q

How does the prairie vole species form long term pair bonds?

A
  • have more vasopressin and oxytocin receptors in their ventral forebrain than other species do
  • pharmacologically blocking or activating these receptors influences who they pair up with and when
  • artificially increasing the expression of these receptors in non- monogamous prairie vole brains causes them to form life-long, monogamous-ish pair bonds
94
Q

What does love and addiction affect?

A
  • not affect overall intelligence
  • they skew priorities and choice behaviour
95
Q

What do love and addiction have in common?

A
  • Getting over a devastating breakup is somewhat like recovering from addiction
  • Healing a broken heart is difficult and often involves relapses into obsessive behavior

Psych 211 (neuro) (22 decks)

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