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Psych 211 (neuro) > Brain anatomy > Flashcards

Brain anatomy Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the parts of the nervous system?

A
  • central
  • peripheral
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2
Q

What are oligodendrocytes?

A
  • glial cell
  • in CNS
  • creates myelin
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3
Q

What are Schwann cells?

A
  • in PNS
  • create myelin
  • once cell makes one myelin sheath
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4
Q

What is extracellular fluid?

A
  • flows around cells providing nutrients and collecting waste
  • collected into lymph vessels, which carries it to lymph nodes & lymph organs
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5
Q

What is the lymphatic system?

A
  • part of the immune system that detects and destroys invading organisms and foreign particles
  • Liquid in the lymphatic system (lymph) is returned to the blood supply to start the process again
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6
Q

What is the blood brain barrier?

A
  • CNS does not participate in the lymphatic system of the body because there are no holes in the blood vessels that pass through the brain and spinal cord
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7
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A
  • the brain makes its own extracellular solution by actively picking out exactly what it needs from the blood
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8
Q

What makes up the CNS?

A
  • brain
  • spinal cord
  • projection neuron
  • interneuron
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9
Q

What is a projection neuron?

A
  • has an axon that innervates distal areas of the brain
  • it synapses on neurons that are far away from where the axon started
  • mostly release glutamate
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10
Q

What is an interneuron?

A
  • only synapses on local, nearby neurons
  • axon doesn’t go far
  • mostly release GABA
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11
Q

What are the parts of the PNS?

A
  • outside brain and spinal cord
  • axons of motor neurons
  • sensory neuron dendrites, axons and cell bodies
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12
Q

What are axons of motor neurons?

A
  • efferent fibers (outputs)
  • bringing information away from the CNS
  • Motor neurons control muscle contraction and gland secretion
  • Motor neuron cell bodies are mostly located in the spinal cord
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13
Q

What are the axons of sensory neurons

A
  • afferent fibers (inputs)
  • bringing information towards the CNS
  • Sensory neurons detect changes in the external and internal environment
  • The axons of sensory neurons synapse in the CNS
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14
Q

What are nerves?

A
  • enclosed, cable-like bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system
  • bundle of bundles of axons
  • mix of sensory axons and motor axons
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15
Q

What are spinal nerves?

A
  • 31 pairs
  • axons of spinal nerves enter/leave the spinal cord
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16
Q

What are cranial nerves?

A
  • 12 pairs
  • enter/leave the brain directly
  • All cranial nerves (except for one) process movements and sensory information around the head and neck
  • exception is the 10th cranial nerve – the vagus – which branches extensively in the upper half of the body
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17
Q

What is the spinal cord?

A
  • long, conical structure
  • bring sensory information to the brain and to bring motor fibers to effector organs throughout the body
  • various reflexive control circuits are located there
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18
Q

What is the anterior direction?

A
  • in front
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19
Q

What is the posterior direction?

A
  • behind
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20
Q

What is the superior direction?

A
  • above
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21
Q

What is the inferior direction?

A
  • below
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22
Q

What is the rostral direction?

A
  • towards the beak
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23
Q

What is the caudal direction?

A
  • towards the tail
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24
Q

What is the dorsal direction?

A
  • towards the back (or top of head
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25
Q

What is the ventral direction?

A
  • towards the belly
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26
Q

What is the lateral direction?

A
  • away from the midline
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27
Q

What is the medial direction?

A
  • towards the midline
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28
Q

What is the neuraxis?

A
  • imaginary line that runs along the length of the CNS
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29
Q

How does the PNS divide?

A
  • somatic
  • autonomic
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30
Q

What is the somatic system?

A
  • Interacts with external environment
  • Afferent nerves carry sensory signals from the body’s surface TO the CNS
  • Efferent nerves carry motor signals FROM the CNS to skeletal muscles
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31
Q

What is the autonomic system?

A
  • Regulates body’s internal environment
  • Afferent nerves carry sensory signals
    from internal organs TO the CNS
  • Efferent nerves carry motor signals FROM the CNS to internal organs
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32
Q

What are the parts of the efferent autonomic system?

A
  • sympathetic
  • parasympathetic
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33
Q

What is the sympathetic division?

A
  • Primes the body for action
  • fight-flight-freeze response
  • always active to some extent
  • regulates heart rate, blood flow, and the activity of nearly every organ
  • When strongly stimulated, it increases blood flow to organs involved in intense physical activity and shunts blood away from organs that are not necessary for immediate survival
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34
Q

What is the parasympathetic division?

A
  • Supports activities that occur when the body is in a relaxed state
  • always active to some extent
  • regulates urination, defecation, salvation, and sexual arousal, increasing the body’s energy stores (digestion)
  • feed and breed, rest and digest
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35
Q

What are the major anatomical divisions of the brain?

A
  • forebrain
  • midbrain
  • hindbrain
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36
Q

What are the principle structures of the hindbrain?

A
  • medulla oblongata
  • pons
  • cerebellum
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37
Q

What are the principle structures of the midbrain?

A
  • tectum
  • tegmentum
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38
Q

What are the principle structures of the forebrain?

A
  • hypothalamus
  • thalamus
  • limbic system
  • basal ganglia
  • cerebral cortex
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39
Q

What do the medulla and pons do?

A
  • Internal sensations (stretch) and internal muscles (heart, bladder) are generally processed in the medulla & pons
  • several cranial nerve nuclei in the medulla and pons, which participate in hearing, balance, taste, and sensations and movements of the face
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40
Q

What is brain nuclei?

A
  • in the brain, the word nuclei refers to a collection of neurons that are clustered together that regulate a shared function
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41
Q

What is contralateral?

A
  • structures on the opposite side of the body
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42
Q

What is ipsilateral?

A
  • structures on the same side of body
  • taste and smell
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43
Q

What is superficial?

A
  • located close to the surface
  • close to exterior
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44
Q

What is deep?

A
  • located far away from the surface
  • deep in interior
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45
Q

What is proximal?

A
  • nearby
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46
Q

What is distal?

A
  • far away
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47
Q

What makes up the brain stem?

A
  • medulla
  • pons
  • midbrain
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48
Q

What is the medulla oblongata?

A
  • contains a collection of brain nuclei that regulate autonomic functions, such as heart rate, blood flow, breathing, vomiting, sneezing, etc
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49
Q

What are two parts of the medulla?

A
  • area postrema
  • reticular formation
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50
Q

What is the area postrema?

A
  • initiates vomiting when poisons are detected
  • blood–brain barrier is noticeably weak here
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51
Q

What is the reticular formation?

A
  • regulates sleep and arousal
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52
Q

What are the pons?

A
  • bulge in the brain stem that relays information between the cerebrum and cerebellum
  • cranial nerve nuclei are located; participate in hearing, balance, taste, facial movements, and sensations of the face
  • Part of the reticular formation is also here
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53
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A
  • little brain
  • contributes to the coordination, precision, and accurate timing of movements
  • sensorimotor integration on the timescale of milliseconds/seconds, which exerts a smoothing effect on movement and cognition
  • plays an important role in motor learning, particularly as the body grows and changes over time
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54
Q

What does cerebellar damage result in?

A
  • jerky, exaggerated, poorly coordinated movements
  • extensive cerebellar damage makes it impossible to stand up
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55
Q

What do neurons in the cerebellar cortex do?

A
  • send axons inwards to the deep cerebellar nuclei
  • from there, neurons project to the brain and spinal cord
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56
Q

What is the midbrain?

A
  • collection of nuclei that orchestrate complex reflexive behaviours
  • consists of the tectum and tegmentum
57
Q

What is the tectum?

A
  • roof
  • two pairs of bumps on the dorsal surface of the midbrain
58
Q

What is the superior colliculi?

A
  • top 2 bumps of the tectum
  • involved in orienting the animal to things in peripheral vision
59
Q

What is the inferior colliculi?

A
  • bottom 2 bumps of the tectum
  • involved in orienting to unexpected sounds
60
Q

What is the tegmentum?

A
  • several structures that coordinate and motivate complex species-typical movements
  • some areas process pain and orchestrate behavioural responses to threats
61
Q

What are the areas in the forebrain and hindbrain that are similar?

A
  • cerebral cortex -> cerebellum
  • thalamus -> pons
  • hypothalamus -> medulla oblongata
62
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A
  • bilateral structure made up of several nuclei, which generally regulate autonomic nervous system activity
  • involved in behaviours that directly relate to survival
  • link the nervous system to the endocrine system (release of hormones into the blood stream) via the pituitary gland
  • master regulator of hormone system
63
Q

What is a hormone?

A
  • chemical substance that is released into the blood by an endocrine gland
  • it has effects on cells in other organs
64
Q

What is an endocrine gland?

A
  • gland that secretes hormones into the blood
  • master regulator of the endocrine system is the hypothalamus, as it releases hormones that regulate the function of other endocrine glands
65
Q

What is the thalamus?

A
  • bilateral structure that contains several nuclei, many of which relay ascending sensory information to different regions of the cerebral cortex
  • many nuclei of the thalamus have widespread cortical projections
  • directs information
66
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A
  • where sensory information enters conscious awareness
  • where our understanding of the world is formed
  • where we decide how to purposefully move in the world
  • multi-layered structure
  • Neurons are interconnected between layers in a way that gives rise to cortical columns, which are thought to be partially distinct functional units
67
Q

What is the surface of the brain?

A
  • the cerebral cortex
  • it contains sulci, fissures, and gyri
  • these convolutions increase the surface area of the cerebral cortex
68
Q

What are sulci?

A
  • small grooves
69
Q

What are fissures?

A
  • large or major grooves
70
Q

What are gyri?

A
  • ridges between sulci or fissures
71
Q

What is gray matter?

A
  • outermost portion of the cerebral cortex
  • there is high concentration of cell bodies here
72
Q

What is white matter?

A
  • beneath the gray matter
  • primarily just myelinated axons
73
Q

What are the different ways of cutting the brain?

A
  • coronal cut
  • sagittal cut
  • horizontal cut
74
Q

What is a coronal cut?

A
  • separating the front from the back of the brain
75
Q

What is a sagittal cut?

A
  • a mid-sagittal cut means the exact middle
  • between the eyes
  • separating left from right
76
Q

What is a horizontal cut?

A
  • separating the top from the bottom
77
Q

What is medial?

A
  • toward midline
78
Q

What is lateral?

A
  • away from midline
79
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?

A
  • frontal
  • parietal
  • temporal
  • occipital
80
Q

What is the frontal lobe?

A
  • controls movement
81
Q

What is the parietal lobe?

A
  • processes touch information
82
Q

What is the temporal lobe?

A
  • processes auditory information
83
Q

What is the occipital lobe?

A
  • processes visual information
84
Q

Where are taste and smell processed?

A
  • near the junction of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes inside the lateral fissure
85
Q

Where is taste processed?

A
  • in the insular cortex
86
Q

Where is smell processed?

A
  • in the piriform cortex?
87
Q

What is the longitudinal fissure?

A
  • separates the two hemispheres
88
Q

What is the lateral fissure?

A
  • separates the frontal lobe and the temporal lobe
89
Q

What is the central sulcus?

A
  • separates the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe
90
Q

What is the corpus collosum?

A
  • large bundle of axons that connects corresponding parts of the left and right hemispheres
  • two cerebral hemispheres perform somewhat different functions, perceptions and memories are unified
91
Q

What are the primary cortical areas?

A
  • primary motor cortex
  • somatosensory cortex
  • primary auditory cortex
  • primary visual cortex
92
Q

Where is the primary motor cortex?

A
  • frontal lobe
93
Q

Where is the somatosensory cortex?

A
  • parietal lobe
94
Q

Where is the primary auditory cortex?

A
  • temporal lobe
95
Q

Where is the primary visual cortex?

A
  • occipital lobe
96
Q

What is the primary motor cortex?

A
  • contains motor neurons that synapse in the spinal cord
  • different regions of primary motor cortex control different parts of the body
97
Q

What is the somatosensory cortex?

A
  • where touch information enters the cerebral cortex
  • different regions of somatosensory cortex receive information from different parts of the body
98
Q

What is the primary auditory cortex?

A
  • where auditory information enters the cerebral cortex
99
Q

What is the primary visual cortex?

A
  • where visual information enters the cerebral cortex
100
Q

What is the insular cortex?

A
  • hidden in lateral fissure
  • where gustatory information enters the cerebral cortex
101
Q

What happens if a primary area is damaged?

A
  • lose conscious awareness of that information
102
Q

What is a sensory association cortex?

A
  • adjacent to each primary sensory area
  • where perception takes place and memories are stored
103
Q

What are the sensory association cortexes?

A
  • premotor cortex
  • somatosensory association cortex
  • auditory association cortex
  • visual association cortex
104
Q

What happens if the sensory association cortex is damaged?

A
  • can’t label what is being sensed
105
Q

What are meninges?

A
  • 3 protective layers of tissue that wrap the brain and spinal cord
106
Q

What protects the CNS?

A
  • meninges
  • bone (skull and vertebrae)
107
Q

What are the 3 types of meninges?

A
  • dura matter
  • arachnoid membrane
  • pia matter
108
Q

What is dura matter?

A
  • the outer layer
  • thick, tough, unstretchable tissue
109
Q

What is the arachnoid membrane?

A
  • the middle layer
  • web-like extensions (arachnoid trabeculae) create a soft, spongy layer that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
110
Q

What is pia matter?

A
  • the third layer
  • sits closest to the brain and is a bit like Saran-Wrap
111
Q

What do large blood vessels do in the CNS?

A
  • course through the subarachnoid space (arachnoid trabeculae)
112
Q

What do smaller blood vessels do in the CNS?

A
  • capillaries branch off and dive into the brain to provide nutrients and oxygen
113
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A
  • brain floats in it
  • made from blood by tissue called choroid plexus, which are in each of the brain’s four ventricles
  • made continuously
  • fully exchanged about 4 times per day
  • circulates around and into the brain providing nutrients and removing waste
  • exits the CNS by passing through holes in the dura mater, where it is absorbed into the blood supply
114
Q

What are ventricles?

A
  • the interconnected hollow spaces in the center of the brain
115
Q

What are the 4 ventricles of the brain?

A
  • 2 lateral ventricles
  • third ventricle
  • fourth ventricle
116
Q

Where are the 2 lateral ventricles?

A
  • sit underneath the cerebrum (cerebral cortex)
117
Q

Where is the third ventricle?

A
  • lies between the two thalamic nuclei at the center of the brain
118
Q

What is the cerebral aqueduct?

A
  • a long, tube-like structure that connects the third and fourth ventricle
119
Q

Where is the fourth ventricle?

A
  • in the hindbrain, between the pons and cerebellum
120
Q

What is the central canal of the spinal cord?

A
  • connects to the fourth ventricle
121
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A
  • contains 4 lobes
  • each lobe has a Primary Area
  • other ares are Association Cortex
122
Q

What is a primary area?

A
  • where information leaves/enters the cerebral cortex
123
Q

What is an association cortex?

A
  • where we interpret sensory information and plan movements
124
Q

What are subcortical structures?

A
  • sit beneath the cerebral cortex
  • basal ganglia and limbic system
125
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A
  • a collection of nuclei
  • they regulate intentional movements, motivation, reinforcement learning, and habits
126
Q

Where is the basal ganglia?

A
  • located beneath the lateral ventricles
127
Q

What are the inputs of the basal ganglia?

A
  • inputs come from all over the forebrain
  • strong dopamine input from the midbrain
128
Q

What are the outputs of the basal ganglia?

A
  • outputs of the basal ganglia descend to midbrain and hindbrain to regulate movement
  • other outputs ascend to the cerebral cortex (via the thalamus) to regulate sensory processing and decision making
129
Q

What happens when the basal ganglia dysfuntions?

A
  • neurological (movement) disorders are associated with basal ganglia dysfunction
  • Parkinson’s disease relates to the loss of dopamine signaling in the basal ganglia
130
Q

What is the limbic system?

A
  • collection of subcortical brain areas that regulate emotions and the formation of episodic memories
  • hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate cortex
131
Q

What is the cingulate cortex?

A
  • large area that overlies the corpus callosum
  • interconnects many limbic areas of the brain
132
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A
  • hidden in the temporal lobe
  • critical for explicit memory formation
133
Q

What is the amygdala?

A
  • hidden in the temporal lobe
  • critical for processing emotion, especially fear
134
Q

How does the brain develop?

A
  • hollow, enclosed neural tube forms during the first month of human development in the womb
  • first cells in this tube are neural progenitor cells
  • until the 8th week of development, these cells only undergo symmetrical cell division
  • asymmetrical cell division starts around the 8th week of development
  • 3 months
  • end of the fifth month, there are 85 billion neurons in the human brain
  • many of these neurons die before birth
135
Q

What is symmetrical cell division?

A
  • each neural progenitor cell becomes two neural progenitor cells
136
Q

What is asymmetrical cell division?

A
  • when a neural progenitor cell divides, one of the daughter cells migrates away from the center of the neural tube
  • next time that cell divides, it will produce either two neurons or two glia cells
137
Q

What is neurogenesis?

A
  • Production of new neurons
  • Neural progenitor cells produce neurons and glia after they undergo asymmetrical cell division
  • Human neurogenesis largely stops five months after conception when neural progenitor cells undergo apoptosis
  • There may be a little neurogenesis in some adult mammals, but whether this occurs in humans is controversial
138
Q

What is apoptosis?

A
  • programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms
  • highly regulated and controlled form of cell suicide that ensures a dying cell does not cause problems for its neighbours
  • human neural progenitor cells undergo apoptosis around the fifth month of development in the womb
  • when (most or all) neurogenesis stops

Psych 211 (neuro) (22 decks)

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