Session 3

Question 1

What is the purpose of statistics?

Answer 1

The generalise and make inferences about a population.

Question 2

What are population statistics?

Answer 2

All possible observations of an experimental/variable study. This is the population we are primarily interested in.

Question 3

What are sample statistics?

Answer 3

A selection of observations taken from the population. Sample not really of interest – we want to generalise to the population.

Question 4

What are the two types of error that can occur in a study that may influence the results?

Answer 4

Chance - it is random error due to sampling variation and is reduced by increasing the sample size.
Bias - systematic error that is quantified by the difference between the true and expected results. It is not influenced by sample size.

Question 5

What is an observed value?

Answer 5

It is the best estimate of the true or underlying value.

Question 6

How can the observed value differ from the true value?

Answer 6

Due to random variation.

Question 7

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 7

A statement that an underlying truth of scientific interest takes a particular quantitative value.

Question 8

What is the p-value?

Answer 8

The probability of getting an observation, assuming that the hypothesis is true.

Question 9

What is the agreed P-value and what does it mean if the obtained value is less than this value?

Answer 9

0.05 or 5%.
If there is less than 5% probability, then it is unlikely that the hypothesis is true, and so there is sufficient evidence to reject the hypothesis.

Question 10

If the P-value is 0.05 or greater what does this mean?

Answer 10

It means that there is a possibility that the hypothesis is true - there is not enough evidence to reject the hypothesis.
It does not mean that the hypothesis has been proven.

Question 11

What are the limitations of hypothesis testing?

Answer 11

Statistical significance does not mean that something is clinically significant.
There is very little difference between 0.049 and 0.051 but determines whether something has been rejected.
It is dependent on sample size - a small sample size may not be statistically significant.

Question 12

Why is there statistical variation?

Answer 12

Almost all observed quantities in medical science are subject to variation by chance.

Question 13

What is a 95% confidence interval?

Answer 13

The range within which we can be 95% certain that the true value of the underlying truth really lies.
The range is centred on the observed value because it is always our ‘best guess’ at the true underlying value.

Question 14

What happens to the confidence interval as the sample size changes?

Answer 14

As the sample size increases, there is a decrease in confidence interval. This means we are confident that the true value lies within a smaller range as there is less random variation.

Question 15

What is a statistical significant value?

Answer 15

Where a P-value is less than 0.05. This means that it lies outside the confidence interval.
If the P-value is greater than 0.05 then it lies within the confidence interval.

Question 16

What is a null value? What is this for a true value, and for a ratio?

Answer 16

A value for which there is no difference between the groups.
For a true value, this is 0.
For a ratio, this is 1.

Question 17

What does the confidence interval show, and how does it relate to the P-value?

Answer 17

It allows one to assess the statistical significance of a result.
The confidence interval and P-value will alway agree - they will be reject or be of no statistical significance.

Question 18

What does a null hypothesis value show?

Answer 18

Less than 0.05 is rejected, greater than 0.05 is not rejected.

Question 19

What are qualitative research approaches?

Answer 19

• Are not necessarily countable/measurable.
• Investigate feelings, thoughts, behaviours, practices, reasons.
• Asks about, or watches, people’s experiences of their own lives.
• Explore and explain findings in that context to shed light on human experience.

Question 20

What are some differences between quantitative and qualitative research?

Answer 20

Question 21

What are some strengths of qualitative research?

Answer 21

Can be used in combination with quantitative research, to help guide the questions.
It focusses on how contexts influence behaviours and feelings; social structures, cultural structures, and professional structures, allowing different experiences to show associations.
Explains why peoples behaviours and choices are influenced by peoples experiences.

Question 22

What are some weaknesses of qualitative research?

Answer 22

Small sample sizes. Depth of information is traded for breadth.
It cannot be generalised across a population, or be representative of a population.
It may not be reproducible.
It is subjective - not bias should it be reflected upon.
There is no definitive ‘right answer’ - the patterns may be interpreted differently.

Question 23

What is credibility?

Answer 23

Whether the findings are true.

Question 24

What is transferability?

Answer 24

Whether the research can be applied broadly.

Question 25

What is dependability?

Answer 25

Whether the study can be repeated and the results be similar.

Question 26

What is confirmability?

Answer 26

Whether the findings and conclusions are drawn from the data.

Question 27

What are methodologies, and some example?

Answer 27

They are particular philosophical approaches.
Examples = grounded theory, phenomenology and action research.

Question 28

What are methods, and what are some examples?

Answer 28

Particular techniques to gather insights.
Examples:
- interviews and focus groups
- diaries
- ethnography
- free-text survey questions, documents/reports, social media, arts, etc.

Question 29

What is grounded theory, and what methods does it use?

Answer 29

It asks a broad question and tries to make a theory, gather data and look at patterns of data.
Any method can be used.

Question 30

What is phenomenology, and what methods does it use?

Answer 30

It investigates the everyday experiences, thoughts, feelings of humans.
Use interviews, focus groups, arts and diaries.

Question 31

What is action research, and what methods does it use?

Answer 31

Seeks to find an evidence-based solution to a specific local problem; often collaborative and less interested in the reason.
It uses interviews or ethnography.

Question 32

What are interviews/ focus groups, and how are they done?

Answer 32

They ask a series of questions on themes around the topic to participants one-on-one, or in small groups.
It is done in person, by phone or on a videocall.

Question 33

What are diaries, and how are they done?

Answer 33

Asks respondents to write down thoughts, experiences, and reflections regularly over time.
It is done on paper, as blogs, or instant messages.

Question 34

What is ethnography, and how is it done?

Answer 34

It is where the researcher spends time immersed in a place, or with a group, observing what practices and experiences happen.
It is done in person or remotely.

Question 35

What are the 3 ways of analysing qualitative research?

Answer 35

Thematic.
Discourse.
Narrative.

Question 36

What is a thematic?

Answer 36

Looking for topics and themes that come up in the data.

Question 37

What is a discourse?

Answer 37

Looking for ways (words, metaphors) people talk about things.

Question 38

What is narrative analysis?

Answer 38

Looking for the patterns of the stories that people construct their experiences.

Question 39

How can we improve healthcare using qualitative data?

Answer 39

Patient experiences - making suggestions for better health supports, education and relationships.
Observations of facilities and services - making suggestions for best/ better practices, procedures or standards.
Healthcare practitioners’ views - making suggestions for better training, workforce, support or resourcing.