Section B: Scientific Processes (Psychology as a Science)

Question 1

The Scientific Process: What is ‘deductive reasoning’?

Answer 1

-Works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a “top-down” approach.
- We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test.
-We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a confirmation (or not) of our original theories.

Question 2

The Scientific Process: What is ‘inductive reasoning’?

Answer 2

-Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories.
-Informally, we sometimes call this a “bottom up” approach.
In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

Question 3

What is meant by ‘objectivity’?

Answer 3

-This is when a study is BIAS FREE of the experimenter, and there are operationalised definitions of behaviour being used. It also refers to the validity (or accuracy/consistency) of a measure.

Question 4

Why might it be difficult for researchers to remain objective when conducting and analysing psychological research?

Answer 4

CONFIRMATION BIAS –> Researchers will be looking for findings that align to/ support their hypothesis and assumptions.

Question 5

What could be used to improve the risk of confirmation bias?

Answer 5

To improve this, a DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE could be used –> Where another researcher to conduct a study on your behalf who is naïve to the research aim (potential limitation is that they could probably guess the aim).

Question 6

Explain FIVE ways that an experimenter might affect the results of their study, therefore making it less objective?

Answer 6

1. Leading questions that contain CUES that INFLUENCE the way that a participant responds.
2. The sampling technique used to recruit participants may not be representative (e.g. opportunity sampling uses participants who are readily available which does NOT accurately reflect the proportions of the population).
3. No random allocation to conditions is problematic as it is subjective –> the researcher may consciously/unconsciously pick participants based on their characteristics).
   For example, if there is a treatment experiment with a drug and placebo, if researchers know which is the experimental group and which is the placebo, then they may offer more support throughout the procedure/ interpret the data more positively from the experimental group - “feeling alright” may be interpreted as the effects of the drug.
4. CONFIRMATION BIAS –> When the researcher selectively attends to actions/ aspects that support their hypothesis (can be deliberate or unconscious –> e.g. if a study predicts that boys are more aggressive than girls, then researchers may pick up more on aggressive behaviour shown in boys as they are actively looking for it.
5. Difference in a researcher’s treatment of participants - might lead to cues being given to one set of ppts –> can be deliberate or unconscious.

Question 7

How can the OBJECTIVITY of a measurement be improved? How can researchers ensure that they are bias free when conducting their research?

Answer 7

• Use QUANTITATIVE DATA to measure to reduce bias in interpretation.

-Double/ single blind procedures.

-Standardised instructions (e.g. pre-recorded instructions to ensure exact same delivery - same tone, identical instructions).

-Operationalised categories - Well defined and clear, no room for subjective interpretation.

-Inter-rater reliability checks.

-Random allocation of ppts to conditions.

-Representative sample selected –> e.g. stratified.

Question 8

What is meant by the term ‘empiricism’?

Answer 8

This is when information is gained through DIRECT OBSERVATION rather than simply argument or belief –> i.e. we should be able to operationalise our IV and DV and directly observe them.

Question 9

Why are OBJECTIVITY and EMPIRICISM important in science?

Answer 9

-Data is more likely to be reliable and valid (credible) –> free from interpretation.
-If something has credibility, it is BELIEVABLE - it gives us high levels of certainty and confidence in our findings.

Question 10

Give an example of areas of psychology that can be studied EMPIRICALLY?

Answer 10

-Brain scans are empirical –> observable, physical brain structure –> therefore not open to dispute.

Question 11

Give an example of areas of psychology that cannot be studied EMPIRICALLY?

Answer 11

-Mediational processes in SLT –>Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation –> Studied using INFERENCES from behaviour.

Question 12

What are EMPIRICAL aspects of the learning approach and what are NON-EMPIRICAL aspects of the learning approach?

Answer 12

Empirical :
-The saliva of Pavlov’s dogs was empirical –> measurable and quantifiable evidence. Observable amount of salivation.

-The number of times the rats pressed the level –> Quantitative, measurable.

-Bandura: Number of times children hit the Bobo Doll –> Observable and quantifiable.

Non-Empirical:

-Mediational processes in the SLT –> based on inferences from behaviour.

Question 13

What are EMPIRICIAL aspects of the psychodynamic approach and what are NON-EMPIRICAL aspects of this approach?

Answer 13

Empirical:

-If an individual is fixated on oral stage –> nail biter and smoker - observable characteristics.

-Consequences of fixation –> Measurable (e.g. how many cigarettes are smoked a day).

Non-Empirical:

-The idea of the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO –> Non-observable - cannot be seen or tested, or proved. Not falsifiable.

-Freud interested in the unconscious mind –> Not observable or empirical.

-Defence mechanisms - Not empirical or observable.

Question 14

(A01) What is REPLICABILITY?

Answer 14

The opportunity to REPEAT an investigation under the SAME CONDITIONS in order to check and verify specific information by finding consistent results.

In other words, replicability can be seen as:
-The ability to replicate/repeat the method to assess if similar findings are achieved.
-The ability to achieve similar findings.

Question 15

Why is replicability an important feature of science? (think about DRAWING CONCLUSIONS)

Answer 15

If researchers wish to draw conclusions from research studies, the procedures and findings should be REPEATABLE.

-Unrepeatable results may IMPLY FLAWS or LACK OF CONTROL within the method used and ARE OF LIMITED USE IN THEORY CONSTRUCTION.

Question 16

Explain MORE reasons why replicability is an important feature of science?

Answer 16

-Replicability INCREASES OUR CONFIDENCE IN RESULTS which in turn suggests data is MORE LIKELY TO BE VALID (accurate) if findings are consistent –> This enables ‘one offs’ to be discarded and reduces the impact of anomalous results.

-Replication STRENGTHENS THE CREDIBILITY OF A THEORY through repeated attempts at refutation and falsification.

-Improves the GENERALISABILITY of findings –> Increasing the sample means it is more representative of the wider ‘target’ population –> If findings are consistent throughout, they are more generalisable.

-Increases external reliability if consistent results are found.

Question 17

Is the research study of Little Hans replicable?

Answer 17

NO –> Low replicability due to the use of a case study - Unique scenario means researchers are unable to replicate to check for consistency of findings.

Question 18

Is Loftus’ research into leading questions (car-crash clips) replicable?

Answer 18

YES - Lab experiment so is highly replicable –> strict control over extraneous variables so we can establish cause and effect (conclude that the IV is having a direct effect on the DV).

We are able to replicate the exact same setting to check for reliability as the study follows a standardised procedure –> assesses consistency of findings through replication –> SAME video shown to ppts.

Question 19

(A01) What is meant by ‘falsifiability’?

Answer 19

Popper argued that scientific theories must risk being PROVED WRONG.

-According to Popper, what separates a science from a non-science is not the ability to verify (and confirm) results but the ability to FALSIFY THE THEORIES (TO BE ABLE TO PROVE IT WRONG).

Question 20

According to the American Psychological Association, What is falsification?

Answer 20

-Falsification is the logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis or theory CAN BE SHOWN TO BE FALSE BY AN OBSERVATION OR EXPERIMENT.

-Therefore, in order for psychology to be considered scientific, we have to CONSTRUCT TESTABLE HYPOTHESES (deductive method) WHICH HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO BE FALSIFIED (proved wrong).

Question 21

Why can INDUCTION (the inductive method), by contrast, NOT yield certainty?

Answer 21

-No matter how many observations are made which confirm a theory, there is always the possibility that a future observation could refute it.

Question 22

Is the Humanistic Approach FALSIFIABLE? Why/Why not?

Answer 22

The Humanistic Approach is mainly unfalsifiable.

-Concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence’ are NOT DIRECTLY OBSERVABLE. Therefor, it is NOT possible to falsify such concepts as they have to BE INFERRED.

-To involve the deductive method and hypothesis testing, researchers need to be able to OPERATIONALISE VARIABLES and TEST THE IMPACT OF ONE THING ON ANOTHER (i.e. isolate variables) and focus on one aspect of human behaviour. HOWEVER, THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH IS HOLISTIC –> SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE IS IMPORTANT MEANING WE CANNOT ISOLATE VARIABLES.

-The judgement as to whether someone has self-actualised or not is also open to bias and subjectivity –> It is not directly observable or measurable and therefore, becomes impossible to refute using scientific methods.

Question 23

Is the Biological Approach FALSIFIABLE? Why/Why not?

Answer 23

-Damage to the pre-frontal cortex resulting in behavioural changes IS OBSERVABLE –> DAMAGE CAN BE SEEN ON A SCAN.

-Increase in testosterone levels in rats –> Can be directly manipulated and behavioural changes observed.

Question 24

What is a HYPOTHESIS?

Answer 24

A hypothesis is a TESTABLE, PRECISE statement of what the researchers PREDICT in terms of the outcome of a study.

Question 25

(A01) What is THE HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE MODEL?

Answer 25

-The starting point of science is that an OBSERVATION ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IS MADE or A THEORY IS PUT FORWARD TO TEST.

-Therefore, the key to this model is that psychologists following the SCIENTIFIC METHOD SHOULD:
1. Formulate a hypothesis.
2. Operationalise variables.
3. Devise a procedure to test this hypothesis.

-In order to be scientific, it must be possible to prove a theory INCORRECT (falsify).

-If the study yields data that CONFIRMS the hypothesis, researchers would CONFIRM the initial idea/observation/theory OR an existing theory can be developed with the added knowledge from the findings.

-If the hypothesis is NOT met as a result of the study, researchers would AMEND or REJECT the theory and LOOK FOR ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS to test.

Question 26

Which studies follow the hypothetico-deductive model? (Think MEMORY)

Answer 26

Loftus’s research into leading questions –> She generated a hypothesis that leading questions can distort a memory –> Then fully operationalised her IV and DV (IV =The verb used - smashed, contacted, hit/ DV = Estimates for how fast the cars were going (mph) when they bumped) –> THEN SHE DEVISED HER PROCEDURE TO TEST THIS HYPOTHESIS –> Lab procedure, video recording presented to ppts (standardised procedure).

Question 27

Which studies FAIL to follow the hypothetico-deductive model?

Answer 27

Little Hans research study = INDUCTIVE. Case study research method - not scientific as not replicable - unique situation. Not empirical as concepts cannot be directly observed.
-Freud used Hans to DEVELOP HIS THEORY of psychosexual development.
-Creation of a hypothesis is not possible in a case study.

Question 28

Why is hypothesis testing an important feature of science?

Answer 28

-Allows researchers to REPLICATE research to test for the reliability of findings. This is because variables are clearly OPERATIONALISED, making replication in controlled conditions possible. If consistent findings are produced, then this also helps to establish validity.

-Hypothesis testing ensures that research is FALSIFIABLE –> This is because it is possible to test the hypothesis and support the null or alternative hypothesis and THUS CONFIRM OR DENY THE IDEA/THEORY.

-Hypothesis testing allows for laws and scientific principles to be generated through the testing of ASSUMPTIONS and ACCOMODATION OF NEW INFORMATION.

Question 29

Theory Construction: What is the DEDUCTIVE method?

Answer 29

Theory –> Generate Hypothesis –> Observation/Test –> Confirm/Deny.

1. This is when a researcher has observed something interesting/ proposes a theory.
2. They THEN CREATE A TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS WHICH CAN VERIFY/DISPROVE THE THEORY they have proposed/ observation they have made.
3. With repeated testing, the theory can be EXPANDED or CONFIRMED.

Question 30

Theory Construction: What is the INDUCTIVE METHOD?

Answer 30

Observation –> Pattern –> Hypothesis –> Theory.

1. This is when a researcher observes something of interest and makes inferences/ proposes a theory WITHOUT having developed any hypothesis and testing it through research.

Question 31

Scientific theory is established through WHICH method.

Answer 31

THE DEDUCTIVE METHOD.

-The theory is tested in an EXPERIMENTAL and FALSIFIABLE way.
-Psychologists start with observations to formulate general hypotheses and then test it by creating a RELIABLE, OBJECTIVE, EMPIRICAL and FALSIFIABLE EXPERIMENT.

Question 32

At what point can researchers say a theory is scientifically constructed?

Answer 32

• When researchers have TESTED and REPLICATED findings in MULTIPLE CONTEXTS and CONSISTENTLY FOUND SUPPORT.

Then, researchers can say the theory is scientifically constructed.

Question 33

How is Ainsworth’s theory of attachment an example of the INDUCTIVE METHOD?

Answer 33

-Ainsworth began her naturalistic observational study of mothers and infants in their everyday environments in Uganda, observing and recording as much as possible, and analysing and publishing the data years later.
-These observations helped Ainsworth IDENTIFY DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT TYPES.
-These early observations helped Ainsworth to focus and formalise maternal/infant behaviour and to create the Strange Situation Procedure, where Ainsworth HYPOTHESISED about the importance of a secure-base attachment.
-She then created a structured, quantifiable and replicable method to test infant attachment behaviour.
-Ultimately, the SS provided support for viewing attachment as a secure base relationship.

Question 34

How does Ainsworth’s later work follow the DEDUCTIVE METHOD?

Answer 34

-Ainsworth then went away to devise a deductive method –> assessing attachment type using the Strange Situation.
-She operationalised her attachment types into clear categories (Type A, Type B, Type C).
-She then tested in a controlled environment (lab) with 8 STAGES (standardised procedure) making it replicable.

Ainsworth came up with a theory BEFORE she began her observational research for the SS. These observations led to confirmation of her hypothesis –> the attachment WAS A SECURE-BASE RELATIONSHIP.

Question 35

What is a PARADIGM?

Answer 35

In order to be a science, Kuhn suggested that a subject/ scientific community must have a PARADIGM: THIS IS A SHARED SET OF ASSUMPTIONS THAT EVERYONE WITHIN THAT DISCIPLINE AGREES ON.

-Kuhn argues that scientific research and thought are defined by PARADIGMS that consist of formal theories, classic experiments and trusted methods.
-Scientists typically accept a prevailing paradigm and try to extend its scope by refining theories, explaining data, and establishing more precise measures of standards and phenomena.

Question 36

Does Psychology have an overarching paradigm?

Answer 36

NO –> There are so many different approaches in psychology and they all have different viewpoints.

Question 37

What is a PARADIGM SHIFT?

Answer 37

A paradigm shift occurs when a scientific community moves from one established way of thinking/explaining/studying human behaviour to another (i.e. it is a radical rethink).

-Paradigm shifts must always be an IMPROVEMENT and require a TOTAL CHANGE in the way that the subject is viewed (i.e. a new paradigm (set of beliefs) is incompatible with the previous).
-It inspires new standards of evidence, new research techniques and new pathways of theory that are incompatible with old ones.

Question 38

What is an example of a paradigm shift in Psychology?

Answer 38

-Shifting from introspection to studying behaviour (CHANGING FROM WUNDT’S VIEW TO SKINNER’S VIEW).

-The cognitive revolution in the 1970s and the current emphasis on cognitive neuroscience (new technology such as scanning methods like PET and fMRI) totally changed the way behaviour and internal mental processes are studied.