Section A: Research Methods Flashcards
What is an experimental method in psychology?
i) What is a ‘true’ experiment?
-An experiment sets out to test a research AIM and HYPOTHESIS.
(i) A ‘true’ experiment is a study of DIFFERENCE and is nomothetic.
It involves the deliberate manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.
What are the FOUR defining characteristics of a ‘true’ experiment?
- Researchers are looking for a DIFFERENCE between conditions.
- Researchers look to manipulate the operationalised independent variable.
- Reduce extraneous variables and measure/ record a change in the operationalised dependent variable (likely that the change in IV is impacting the DV in highly-controlled conditions).
4.Researchers will randomly allocate participants to each condition.
What is a laboratory experiment? What characterises one?
- Lab experiments usually take place in a special facility (laboratory) within a university psychology department.
- The IV is directly manipulated by the researcher and its effect on the dependent variable is directly measured.
- All extraneous variables are controlled as much as possible.
- A standardised procedure is followed.
What is meant by a ‘standardised procedure’?
Give a few examples of how researchers may ensure they are following a standardised procedure?
-The process in which procedures used in research are kept the same.
-Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical.
-E.g. All participants should be placed under the same conditions (the level of lighting, noise and heat remains the same for all participants).
-All ppts tested at roughly the same time of day, as people may behave differently if tested at nine o’clock in the morning rather than five o’clock at night.
-Given standardised instructions in exactly the same way (e.g. audio recorded instructions).
What is the purpose of a ‘standardised procedure’?
-To ensure all participants have the same experience.
What are the 4 types of experiment?
- Laboratory
- Field
- Quasi
- Natural
What is the most common way of conducting a laboratory experiment? (think how participants are assigned to the conditions!)
To randomly allocate - This means that everyone has an equal chance of participating in each condition (i.e. without bias).
Which variable is manipulated in a laboratory experiment?
The Independent Variable (all other variables are held constant).
A03 - Strength of Laboratory Experiments
P: Lab experiments are HIGH in reliability.
E: They follow a standardised procedure (all elements of the procedure are kept identical) and take place in highly controlled settings, where extraneous variables (such as situational variables) are limited.
E: This means the study can be easily replicated by other researchers to test the consistency of results found.
A03 - Strength of Laboratory Experiments
P: Lab experiments are high in internal validity.
E: The strict level of control over extraneous variables and subsequent isolation of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable allows us to establish cause and effect relationships.
E: This means that researchers can be confident that a change in the DV is due to a change in the IV and nothing else.
A03 - Limitation of Laboratory Experiments
P: Lab experiments are LOW in ecological validity.
E: Lab experiments take place in artificial and highly controlled settings which are unnatural to the participant .
E: Therefore, participants’ behaviour is unlikely to be representative of their natural behaviour, as it is likely to be influenced by the environment they are in.
A03: Limitation of Laboratory Experiments
E: Lab experiments are LOW in internal validity.
E: Demand characteristics are likely in an artificial setting as participants may look to the researcher and the research environment for cues about how they should behave.
E: Therefore, their behaviour may change accordingly (they adjust their behaviour to their interpretation of the aims of the study).
What is a ‘field experiment’?
-Field experiments are the SAME as laboratory experiments in terms of the treatment of independent/dependent/extraneous variables.
-However, the laboratory environment is swapped for a real-life setting (e.g. a school, town centre).
(A03) Strength of field experiments -ecological validity –> How does this compare to laboratory experiments?
P: Field experiments are high in ecological validity (higher than in a laboratory experiment).
E: They take place in a natural, real world, uncontrolled settings which are natural to the participant.
E: Therefore, participants’ behaviour is likely to be representative of natural behaviour, as it is unlikely to be influenced by the environment they are in. This means that the researcher can generalise the research findings to other settings.
(A03) Strength of field experiments - internal validity.
P: Field experiments are high in internal validity.
E: Demand characteristics are greatly reduced in the natural setting (compared to a laboratory experiment) as participants are unaware they are taking part so they act more naturally and they will not look to the researcher and the research environment for cues about how they should behave.
E: Therefore their behaviour is likely to be more natural and genuine.
(A03) Weakness of field experiments (or counter to them being high in internal validity) - Think about a researcher’s control over extraneous variables in a natural environment!
P: Field experiments are LOW in internal validity.
E: There is not a strict level of control over extraneous variables as the researcher’s control over the environment reduces in the real world. There are more extraneous (later confounding) variables which greatly reduce the validity of results.
E: We cannot therefore establish cause and effect because we cannot be confident that a change in the dependent variable is due to a change in the independent variable as there may be an extraneous variable affecting it as well.
(A03) Weakness of Field Experiments - ETHICS - what ethical issues may arise?
P: Field experiments may suffer from ethical issues.
E: In a field experiment, participants may not be aware that they are taking part and they may become distressed by the manipulations of the independent variable.
E: Therefore, it is difficult to gain fully informed consent and debrief them, as well as right to withdraw and confidentiality.
(A03) Weakness of Field Experiments - RELIABILITY - why are they difficult to replicate?
P: Field experiments are LOW in reliability.
E: They use standardised procedure but take place in real-life settings (e.g. a school)
E: This means the study cannot be easily replicated to test the consistency of results found.
(A01) What is a QUASI EXPERIMENT?
(THINK Characteristics of the participant! - e.g. male, female, age)
In a quasi-experiment, the researcher is unable to freely manipulate the independent variable or randomly allocate the participants to the two conditions. An example would be a study with gender or age as the independent variable.
How do quasi experiments differ to a typical experiment?
In an experiment, usually with a high degree of control of extraneous variables, a researcher MANIPULATES an independent variable to find out its effect on a dependent one.
What is an example of a Quasi experiment?
For example, a teacher conducts the stroop test with their class to see whether MALES are quicker and more accurate at completing the test than FEMALE.
The researcher can’t randomly allocate participants to conditions (males and females).
General Evaluation Points for Quasi experiments?
A quasi- experiment is similar to a laboratory experiment, so they share similar strengths (and limitations).
However, one significant difference is there is no random allocation of participants. Therefore, PARTICIPANT VALUES ARE MORE LIKELY TO CONFOUND THE RESULTS COMPARED TO A LABORATORY EXPERIMENT.
(A01) What is a natural experiment?
Give an example of a natural experiment?
In a natural experiment there is NO MANIPULATION OR CONTROL OF ANY OF THE VARIABLES - THEY ARE NATURALLY OCCURRING. These variables would have happened without the research(er).
For example, studies of the effects of child abuse on adult relationships.
Why are natural experiments sometimes the only option for psychologists to use?
Often, practical and ETHICAL reasons mean that a natural experiment is the only option for psychologists, if they want to use an experimental method.
Give THREE general strengths of natural experiments?
- Natural experiments allow researchers to investigate topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to investigate using other experimental methods (e.g. effects of child abuse).
- Ecological validity is extremely high compared to laboratory experiment. The researcher is able to study completely ‘real’ problems and phenomenon.
- Demand characteristics are greatly reduced compared to a laboratory experiment – if participants are unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.
Give FOUR general limitations of natural experiments?
- There is no random allocation of participants; therefore participant variables are more likely to confound results in a natural experiment than a laboratory experiment.
- The researcher has no control over the environment; extraneous (later confounding) variables greatly reduce the validity of results – they cannot be eliminated.
- Ethical guidelines of informed consent, confidentiality and right to withdraw are breached if participants are unaware they are taking part in the research.
- As the natural events psychologists wish to study are rare (even one-offs) it is often impossible to replicate the research to test findings for reliability (i.e. consistency of findings).
What are the SIX OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES?
-Naturalistic
-Controlled
-Covert
-Overt
-Participant
-Non-Participant
What is a NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION?
-Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists.
-This technique involves observing and studying the spontaneous behaviour of participants in NATURAL, REAL LIFE SURROUNDINGS.
-The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.
-The researcher records all the relevant behaviour and there are no attempts at intervention on their part.
-Some may write qualitative notes of behaviour, whilst others may use coding systems and behavioural categories.
What is a CONTROLLED OBSERVATION?
-Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are LIKELY TO BE CARRIED OUT IN A PSYCHOLOGY LABORATORY.
-The researcher decides WHERE the observation will take place, at WHAT TIME, with WHICH PARTICIPANTS, in what circumstances and USES A STANDARDISED PROCEDURE.
-Rather than writing a detailed description of all behaviour observed, it is often EASIER TO CODE BEHAVIOUR according to a previously agreed scale using a behaviour schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation).
-The researcher systematically classifies the behaviour they observe into distinct behavioural categories.
What is done to the categories on the schedule?
Give an example of a research study in psychology that is a CONTROLLED OBSERVATION?
-The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics.
For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behaviour schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers.
Are controlled observations usually covert or overt? Why?
Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group, so the participants know they are being observed.
Are controlled observations usually non-participant or participant observations?
Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids any direct contact with the group, keeping a distance (e.g. observing behind a two-way mirror).
(A03) Strength of naturalistic observations? - ecological validity?
P: Naturalistic observations are high in ecological / external validity.
E: This is because they take place in NATURAL, REAL-LIFE SURROUNDINGS.
E: Therefore, behaviour is likely to be more natural and representative of participants’ real-world behaviour. Also behaviour is less prone to demand characteristics and the Hawthorne effect –> ppts are less likely to be able to guess the aim of the observation/ alter their behaviour due to their awareness of being observed in natural environments as they are less likely to know they are being observed.
(A03) Weakness of naturalistic observations? (ETHICS)
P: Ethical issues may arise from naturalistic observations.
E: Participants are studied in natural environments, and are often observed without their knowledge. This is ethically questionable as it raises issues in terms of informed consent (no permission granted by ppts to be observed), debriefing and participant confidentiality. Therefore, researchers should not give away details when research is published to protect participant confidentiality. (i.e. don’t associate data with names).
E: This is a weakness as participants should only be studied in environments where people know they are know they are likely to be observed, thus limiting the number of situations in which they can be used.
(A03) Weakness of naturalistic observations? (RELIABILITY - THINK WHERE THEY TAKE PLACE).
P: Naturalistic observations are LOW in reliability.
E: Naturalistic observations take place in real-life settings (e.g. a school) and DO NOT FOLLOW a standardised procedure. The researcher’s control over extraneous variables (e.g. noise in the environment) in naturalistic observations is greatly reduced and they are hard to control.
E: This is a weakness as naturalistic experiments are therefore LOW in reliability as they are not easily replicable in different environments to check for consistency of findings. Furthermore, the results cannot be generalised to different environments due to the impact of extraneous variables on results.
(A03) Limitation of controlled observations (ECOLOGICAL/EXTERNAL VALIDITY - would behaviour be natural, what would it be prone to?
P: Controlled observations are LOW in ecological / external validity.
E: Take place in highly-controlled, artificial environments such as a psychology laboratory and often involve doing tasks that have low mundane realism/ low task validity.
E: This is a limitation as behaviour is likely to be UNNATURAL as the artificial environment would not be NATURAL to participants and so their behaviour is likely to be influenced by the environment they are in (AND SO UNLIKELY TO BE REPRESENTATIVE OF THEIR REAL-LIFE BEHAVIOUR).
(Instead, their behaviour is MORE likely to be PRONE TO DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS as the ppts are either informed of the study aims by the researcher OR ppts will look to the researcher and the RESEARCH SITUATION for cues about how they are predicted to behave and adjust their behaviour accordingly. In a lab setting in controlled observations, behaviour is also prone to the Hawthorne effect where the ppts know they are being watched so change their behaviour).
A03: Strength of Controlled Observations (ETHICAL ISSUES)
P: Ethical issues are LESS likely than in naturalistic observations.
E: Participants are studied in highly controlled environments such as labs and so fully informed consent is more likely to have been gained. Due to the setting not being natural, researchers would usually have to recruit ppts using a volunteer sample where ppts WILLINGLY PUT THEMSELVES FORWARD TO PARTICIPATE (the first step to informed consent).
E: Therefore, this is a strength as researchers are more likely to adhere to ethical guidelines and able to offer participants a thorough debrief once the research is completed.
(A03) Strength of Controlled Observations (RELIABILITY).
P: Controlled observations are HIGH in reliability.
E: They take place in well-controlled conditions/ environments usually in laboratories and follow a standardised procedure.
E: Therefore, by using the same observation schedule in other controlled conditions, it is easier for other researchers to REPLICATE the research to test for the consistency of findings.
What are COVERT observations?
Covert observations are also known as an UNDISCLOSED OBSERVATION, as the participants DO NOT KNOW THEIR BEHAVIOUR IS BEING OBSERVED.
Participants are unaware that they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is studied in secret.
Where must COVERT observations occur if they are to be deemed ethical?
In order to be ethical, the behaviour being observed must occur in the PUBLIC DOMAIN – i.e. where someone knows they are visible to others.
What are OVERT observations?
Overt observations is where participants ARE AWARE their behaviour is being observed and informed consent has been gathered prior to the research being carried out.
(A03) Strength of COVERT observations? - (External validity)
P: Covert observations are HIGH in EXTERNAL VALIDITY.
E: Participants are not aware that they are being observed as covert observations are undisclosed observations –> i.e. their behaviour is being observed in secret.
E: This is a strength as behaviour is LESS likely to be prone to demand characteristics as participants do not know they are being observed and so will NOT look to the researcher/ research situation for cues about the aims of the study and how they are predicted to behave. The Hawthorne effect is also less likely –> ppts are not aware they are being observed and so are less likely to change their behaviour (covert observation)
L: Therefore, the behaviour observed is likely to be representative of the ppts behaviour in real life.
(A03) Limitation of COVERT observations (ETHICS)
P: Covert observations may be prone to ethical issues.
E: In covert observations, participants do not know they are being observed so fully informed consent is less likely to have been gained.
E: Therefore, there may be issues arising that mean participants are not protected from harm & privacy may be violated; they may not have wished to take part in the research and as such have not provided informed consent.
(A03) Limitation of COVERT observations? (practical issues)
P: There can be practical difficulties associated with this type of observational method.
E: It can be difficult for a researcher to remain unobserved if no recording equipment is being used and therefore, crucial behaviours may be missed.
E: This is a weakness as the details obtained may be less valid (accurate).
(A03) Limitation of OVERT observations? (external validity - what are ppts aware of)
P: Overt observations are LOW in external validity.
E: Participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed.
E: This is a limitation as it means that their behaviour is more likely to be prone to the Hawthorne effect as participants know they are being watched and so are likely to change their behaviour, meaning OVERT observations are more prone to demand characteristics as participants may be able to guess the aim and act according to their interpretation of the aim.
(A03) Strength of OVERT observations? (ethics!)
P: Overt observations may be less prone to ethical issues than covert.
E: In overt observations, participants are aware that they are being observed and so it is likely that fully informed consent has been gained before the observation begins.
E: Therefore, it is likely that participants have agreed to take part in research so are more likely to be protected from harm than if they were unaware they were being observed.
What is a PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION?
They can be either COVERT or OVERT - how is this?
Participant observation is a variant of the naturalistic observation, but here THE RESEARCHER JOINS IN AND BECOMES PART OF THE GROUP THEY ARE STUDYING TO GET A DEEPER INSIGHT INTO THEIR LIVES.
Participant observations can be EITHER COVERT OR OVERT:
-Covert is where the study is carried out ‘undercover’. The researcher’s REAL IDENTITY and PURPOSE are KEPT CONCEALED from the group being studied –> The researcher takes on a FALSE IDENTITY and ROLE, USUALLY POSING AS A GENUINE MEMBER OF THE GROUP.
-Contrastingly, overt observation is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and purpose to the group and gains INFORMED CONSENT before the observation takes place.
What is a NON-PARTICIPANT observation?
A non-participant observation is where the researcher observes from a DISTANCE and so is NOT part of the group that they are observing.
(A03) Limitation of PARTICIPANT observations? (practical difficulties)
P: A limitation of participant observations is that there can be practical difficulties associated with this type of observational method.
E: This is because it can be difficult for a researcher to remain unobserved and can also be problematic for a researcher to accurately note and view / record behaviours. Reflections on behaviours may have to be written retrospectively.
E: This reduces the validity and the accuracy of the information/details obtained as it can be DIFFICULT FOR THE RESEARCHER TO REMAIN BOTH UNOBSERVED AND BE NEAR ENOUGH TO THE SUBJECT(S) BEING OBSERVED TO RECORD ALL DETAILS, meaning some key behaviours may be missed.
- Reflections on behaviours being WRITTEN RETROSPECTIVELY is also an issue as the researcher is LIKELY TO FORGET SOME ASPECTS OF WHAT THEY OBSERVED as this would often be done hours later.
Why is it problematic that an observer BECOMES PART OF THE GROUP THAT THEY ARE STUDYING in participant observations?
The observer becomes part of the group that they are studying (e.g. a researcher observing a workforce by having the researcher actually join in the workforce to produce a first-hand account) –> Therefore the researcher may lose objectivity.
(A03) Limitation of PARTICIPANT observations? (ethical issues).
P: There are associated ethical issues with this type of observational method.
E: Participant observations can involve a degree of deception as participants may not be aware that the researcher is in fact studying their behaviour.
E: This is an ethical weakness as in participant observations, participants HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE TO PROVIDE FULLY INFORMED CONSENT. Therefore, their right to withdraw from the observational study might be violated or unclear if they do not know they are being observed. Might cause the participants psychological harm.
(A03) STRENGTH of non participant observations? (less practical difficulties - where does the researcher observe from?)
P: There are LESS practical difficulties associated with non-participant observations.
E: Non-participant observations are where the researcher observes from a DISTANCE and is NOT PART OF THE GROUP THEY ARE OBSERVING.
E: This is a strength as the researcher is able to RECORD BEHAVIOUR IN A MORE OBJECTIVE MANNER. Therefore, there is likely to be MORE ACCURATE AND VALID details and information being obtained.
