Section A: Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
What is an experimental method in psychology?
i) What is a ‘true’ experiment?
A
-An experiment sets out to test a research AIM and HYPOTHESIS.
(i) A ‘true’ experiment is a study of DIFFERENCE and is nomothetic.
It involves the deliberate manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.
2
Q
What are the FOUR defining characteristics of a ‘true’ experiment?
A
- Researchers are looking for a DIFFERENCE between conditions.
- Researchers look to manipulate the operationalised independent variable.
- Reduce extraneous variables and measure/ record a change in the operationalised dependent variable (likely that the change in IV is impacting the DV in highly-controlled conditions).
4.Researchers will randomly allocate participants to each condition.
3
Q
What is a laboratory experiment? What characterises one?
A
- Lab experiments usually take place in a special facility (laboratory) within a university psychology department.
- The IV is directly manipulated by the researcher and its effect on the dependent variable is directly measured.
- All extraneous variables are controlled as much as possible.
- A standardised procedure is followed.
4
Q
What is meant by a ‘standardised procedure’?
Give a few examples of how researchers may ensure they are following a standardised procedure?
A
-The process in which procedures used in research are kept the same.
-Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical.
-E.g. All participants should be placed under the same conditions (the level of lighting, noise and heat remains the same for all participants).
-All ppts tested at roughly the same time of day, as people may behave differently if tested at nine o’clock in the morning rather than five o’clock at night.
-Given standardised instructions in exactly the same way (e.g. audio recorded instructions).
5
Q
What is the purpose of a ‘standardised procedure’?
A
-To ensure all participants have the same experience.
6
Q
What are the 4 types of experiment?
A
- Laboratory
- Field
- Quasi
- Natural
7
Q
What is the most common way of conducting a laboratory experiment? (think how participants are assigned to the conditions!)
A
To randomly allocate - This means that everyone has an equal chance of participating in each condition (i.e. without bias).
8
Q
Which variable is manipulated in a laboratory experiment?
A
The Independent Variable (all other variables are held constant).
9
Q
A03 - Strength of Laboratory Experiments
A
P: Lab experiments are HIGH in reliability.
E: They follow a standardised procedure (all elements of the procedure are kept identical) and take place in highly controlled settings, where extraneous variables (such as situational variables) are limited.
E: This means the study can be easily replicated by other researchers to test the consistency of results found.
10
Q
A03 - Strength of Laboratory Experiments
A
P: Lab experiments are high in internal validity.
E: The strict level of control over extraneous variables and subsequent isolation of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable allows us to establish cause and effect relationships.
E: This means that researchers can be confident that a change in the DV is due to a change in the IV and nothing else.
11
Q
A03 - Limitation of Laboratory Experiments
A
P: Lab experiments are LOW in ecological validity.
E: Lab experiments take place in artificial and highly controlled settings which are unnatural to the participant .
E: Therefore, participants’ behaviour is unlikely to be representative of their natural behaviour, as it is likely to be influenced by the environment they are in.
12
Q
A03: Limitation of Laboratory Experiments
A
E: Lab experiments are LOW in internal validity.
E: Demand characteristics are likely in an artificial setting as participants may look to the researcher and the research environment for cues about how they should behave.
E: Therefore, their behaviour may change accordingly (they adjust their behaviour to their interpretation of the aims of the study).
13
Q
What is a ‘field experiment’?
A
-Field experiments are the SAME as laboratory experiments in terms of the treatment of independent/dependent/extraneous variables.
-However, the laboratory environment is swapped for a real-life setting (e.g. a school, town centre).
14
Q
(A03) Strength of field experiments -ecological validity –> How does this compare to laboratory experiments?
A
P: Field experiments are high in ecological validity (higher than in a laboratory experiment).
E: They take place in a natural, real world, uncontrolled settings which are natural to the participant.
E: Therefore, participants’ behaviour is likely to be representative of natural behaviour, as it is unlikely to be influenced by the environment they are in. This means that the researcher can generalise the research findings to other settings.
15
Q
(A03) Strength of field experiments - internal validity.
A
P: Field experiments are high in internal validity.
E: Demand characteristics are greatly reduced in the natural setting (compared to a laboratory experiment) as participants are unaware they are taking part so they act more naturally and they will not look to the researcher and the research environment for cues about how they should behave.
E: Therefore their behaviour is likely to be more natural and genuine.
16
Q
(A03) Weakness of field experiments (or counter to them being high in internal validity) - Think about a researcher’s control over extraneous variables in a natural environment!
A
P: Field experiments are LOW in internal validity.
E: There is not a strict level of control over extraneous variables as the researcher’s control over the environment reduces in the real world. There are more extraneous (later confounding) variables which greatly reduce the validity of results.
E: We cannot therefore establish cause and effect because we cannot be confident that a change in the dependent variable is due to a change in the independent variable as there may be an extraneous variable affecting it as well.
17
Q
(A03) Weakness of Field Experiments - ETHICS - what ethical issues may arise?
A
P: Field experiments may suffer from ethical issues.
E: In a field experiment, participants may not be aware that they are taking part and they may become distressed by the manipulations of the independent variable.
E: Therefore, it is difficult to gain fully informed consent and debrief them, as well as right to withdraw and confidentiality.
18
Q
(A03) Weakness of Field Experiments - RELIABILITY - why are they difficult to replicate?
A
P: Field experiments are LOW in reliability.
E: They use standardised procedure but take place in real-life settings (e.g. a school)
E: This means the study cannot be easily replicated to test the consistency of results found.
19
Q
(A01) What is a QUASI EXPERIMENT?
A
(THINK Characteristics of the participant! - e.g. male, female, age)
In a quasi-experiment, the researcher is unable to freely manipulate the independent variable or randomly allocate the participants to the two conditions. An example would be a study with gender or age as the independent variable.
20
Q
How do quasi experiments differ to a typical experiment?
A
In an experiment, usually with a high degree of control of extraneous variables, a researcher MANIPULATES an independent variable to find out its effect on a dependent one.
21
Q
What is an example of a Quasi experiment?
A
For example, a teacher conducts the stroop test with their class to see whether MALES are quicker and more accurate at completing the test than FEMALE.
The researcher can’t randomly allocate participants to conditions (males and females).
22
Q
General Evaluation Points for Quasi experiments?
A
A quasi- experiment is similar to a laboratory experiment, so they share similar strengths (and limitations).
However, one significant difference is there is no random allocation of participants. Therefore, PARTICIPANT VALUES ARE MORE LIKELY TO CONFOUND THE RESULTS COMPARED TO A LABORATORY EXPERIMENT.
23
Q
(A01) What is a natural experiment?
Give an example of a natural experiment?
A
In a natural experiment there is NO MANIPULATION OR CONTROL OF ANY OF THE VARIABLES - THEY ARE NATURALLY OCCURRING. These variables would have happened without the research(er).
For example, studies of the effects of child abuse on adult relationships.
24
Q
Why are natural experiments sometimes the only option for psychologists to use?
A
Often, practical and ETHICAL reasons mean that a natural experiment is the only option for psychologists, if they want to use an experimental method.
25
Give THREE general strengths of natural experiments?
1. Natural experiments allow researchers to investigate topics that it would be impractical and/or unethical to investigate using other experimental methods (e.g. effects of child abuse).
2. Ecological validity is extremely high compared to laboratory experiment. The researcher is able to study completely ‘real’ problems and phenomenon.
3. Demand characteristics are greatly reduced compared to a laboratory experiment – if participants are unaware they are taking part they act more naturally.
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Give FOUR general limitations of natural experiments?
1. There is no random allocation of participants; therefore participant variables are more likely to confound results in a natural experiment than a laboratory experiment.
2. The researcher has no control over the environment; extraneous (later confounding) variables greatly reduce the validity of results – they cannot be eliminated.
3. Ethical guidelines of informed consent, confidentiality and right to withdraw are breached if participants are unaware they are taking part in the research.
4. As the natural events psychologists wish to study are rare (even one-offs) it is often impossible to replicate the research to test findings for reliability (i.e. consistency of findings).
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What are the SIX OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES?
-Naturalistic
-Controlled
-Covert
-Overt
-Participant
-Non-Participant
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What is a NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION?
-Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists.
-This technique involves observing and studying the spontaneous behaviour of participants in NATURAL, REAL LIFE SURROUNDINGS.
-The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.
-The researcher records all the relevant behaviour and there are no attempts at intervention on their part.
-Some may write qualitative notes of behaviour, whilst others may use coding systems and behavioural categories.
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What is a CONTROLLED OBSERVATION?
-Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are LIKELY TO BE CARRIED OUT IN A PSYCHOLOGY LABORATORY.
-The researcher decides WHERE the observation will take place, at WHAT TIME, with WHICH PARTICIPANTS, in what circumstances and USES A STANDARDISED PROCEDURE.
-Rather than writing a detailed description of all behaviour observed, it is often EASIER TO CODE BEHAVIOUR according to a previously agreed scale using a behaviour schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation).
-The researcher systematically classifies the behaviour they observe into distinct behavioural categories.
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What is done to the categories on the schedule?
Give an example of a research study in psychology that is a CONTROLLED OBSERVATION?
-The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics.
For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behaviour schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers.
31
Are controlled observations usually covert or overt? Why?
Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group, so the participants know they are being observed.
32
Are controlled observations usually non-participant or participant observations?
Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids any direct contact with the group, keeping a distance (e.g. observing behind a two-way mirror).
33
(A03) Strength of naturalistic observations? - ecological validity?
P: Naturalistic observations are high in ecological / external validity.
E: This is because they take place in NATURAL, REAL-LIFE SURROUNDINGS.
E: Therefore, behaviour is likely to be more natural and representative of participants' real-world behaviour. Also behaviour is less prone to demand characteristics and the Hawthorne effect --> ppts are less likely to be able to guess the aim of the observation/ alter their behaviour due to their awareness of being observed in natural environments as they are less likely to know they are being observed.
34
(A03) Weakness of naturalistic observations? (ETHICS)
P: Ethical issues may arise from naturalistic observations.
E: Participants are studied in natural environments, and are often observed without their knowledge. This is ethically questionable as it raises issues in terms of informed consent (no permission granted by ppts to be observed), debriefing and participant confidentiality. Therefore, researchers should not give away details when research is published to protect participant confidentiality. (i.e. don't associate data with names).
E: This is a weakness as participants should only be studied in environments where people know they are know they are likely to be observed, thus limiting the number of situations in which they can be used.
35
(A03) Weakness of naturalistic observations? (RELIABILITY - THINK WHERE THEY TAKE PLACE).
P: Naturalistic observations are LOW in reliability.
E: Naturalistic observations take place in real-life settings (e.g. a school) and DO NOT FOLLOW a standardised procedure. The researcher's control over extraneous variables (e.g. noise in the environment) in naturalistic observations is greatly reduced and they are hard to control.
E: This is a weakness as naturalistic experiments are therefore LOW in reliability as they are not easily replicable in different environments to check for consistency of findings. Furthermore, the results cannot be generalised to different environments due to the impact of extraneous variables on results.
36
(A03) Limitation of controlled observations (ECOLOGICAL/EXTERNAL VALIDITY - would behaviour be natural, what would it be prone to?
P: Controlled observations are LOW in ecological / external validity.
E: Take place in highly-controlled, artificial environments such as a psychology laboratory and often involve doing tasks that have low mundane realism/ low task validity.
E: This is a limitation as behaviour is likely to be UNNATURAL as the artificial environment would not be NATURAL to participants and so their behaviour is likely to be influenced by the environment they are in (AND SO UNLIKELY TO BE REPRESENTATIVE OF THEIR REAL-LIFE BEHAVIOUR).
(Instead, their behaviour is MORE likely to be PRONE TO DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS as the ppts are either informed of the study aims by the researcher OR ppts will look to the researcher and the RESEARCH SITUATION for cues about how they are predicted to behave and adjust their behaviour accordingly. In a lab setting in controlled observations, behaviour is also prone to the Hawthorne effect where the ppts know they are being watched so change their behaviour).
37
A03: Strength of Controlled Observations (ETHICAL ISSUES)
P: Ethical issues are LESS likely than in naturalistic observations.
E: Participants are studied in highly controlled environments such as labs and so fully informed consent is more likely to have been gained. Due to the setting not being natural, researchers would usually have to recruit ppts using a volunteer sample where ppts WILLINGLY PUT THEMSELVES FORWARD TO PARTICIPATE (the first step to informed consent).
E: Therefore, this is a strength as researchers are more likely to adhere to ethical guidelines and able to offer participants a thorough debrief once the research is completed.
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(A03) Strength of Controlled Observations (RELIABILITY).
P: Controlled observations are HIGH in reliability.
E: They take place in well-controlled conditions/ environments usually in laboratories and follow a standardised procedure.
E: Therefore, by using the same observation schedule in other controlled conditions, it is easier for other researchers to REPLICATE the research to test for the consistency of findings.
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What are COVERT observations?
Covert observations are also known as an UNDISCLOSED OBSERVATION, as the participants DO NOT KNOW THEIR BEHAVIOUR IS BEING OBSERVED.
Participants are unaware that they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is studied in secret.
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Where must COVERT observations occur if they are to be deemed ethical?
In order to be ethical, the behaviour being observed must occur in the PUBLIC DOMAIN – i.e. where someone knows they are visible to others.
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What are OVERT observations?
Overt observations is where participants ARE AWARE their behaviour is being observed and informed consent has been gathered prior to the research being carried out.
42
(A03) Strength of COVERT observations? - (External validity)
P: Covert observations are HIGH in EXTERNAL VALIDITY.
E: Participants are not aware that they are being observed as covert observations are undisclosed observations --> i.e. their behaviour is being observed in secret.
E: This is a strength as behaviour is LESS likely to be prone to demand characteristics as participants do not know they are being observed and so will NOT look to the researcher/ research situation for cues about the aims of the study and how they are predicted to behave. The Hawthorne effect is also less likely --> ppts are not aware they are being observed and so are less likely to change their behaviour (covert observation)
L: Therefore, the behaviour observed is likely to be representative of the ppts behaviour in real life.
43
(A03) Limitation of COVERT observations (ETHICS)
P: Covert observations may be prone to ethical issues.
E: In covert observations, participants do not know they are being observed so fully informed consent is less likely to have been gained.
E: Therefore, there may be issues arising that mean participants are not protected from harm & privacy may be violated; they may not have wished to take part in the research and as such have not provided informed consent.
44
(A03) Limitation of COVERT observations? (practical issues)
P: There can be practical difficulties associated with this type of observational method.
E: It can be difficult for a researcher to remain unobserved if no recording equipment is being used and therefore, crucial behaviours may be missed.
E: This is a weakness as the details obtained may be less valid (accurate).
45
(A03) Limitation of OVERT observations? (external validity - what are ppts aware of)
P: Overt observations are LOW in external validity.
E: Participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed.
E: This is a limitation as it means that their behaviour is more likely to be prone to the Hawthorne effect as participants know they are being watched and so are likely to change their behaviour, meaning OVERT observations are more prone to demand characteristics as participants may be able to guess the aim and act according to their interpretation of the aim.
46
(A03) Strength of OVERT observations? (ethics!)
P: Overt observations may be less prone to ethical issues than covert.
E: In overt observations, participants are aware that they are being observed and so it is likely that fully informed consent has been gained before the observation begins.
E: Therefore, it is likely that participants have agreed to take part in research so are more likely to be protected from harm than if they were unaware they were being observed.
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What is a PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION?
They can be either COVERT or OVERT - how is this?
Participant observation is a variant of the naturalistic observation, but here THE RESEARCHER JOINS IN AND BECOMES PART OF THE GROUP THEY ARE STUDYING TO GET A DEEPER INSIGHT INTO THEIR LIVES.
Participant observations can be EITHER COVERT OR OVERT:
-Covert is where the study is carried out 'undercover'. The researcher's REAL IDENTITY and PURPOSE are KEPT CONCEALED from the group being studied --> The researcher takes on a FALSE IDENTITY and ROLE, USUALLY POSING AS A GENUINE MEMBER OF THE GROUP.
-Contrastingly, overt observation is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and purpose to the group and gains INFORMED CONSENT before the observation takes place.
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What is a NON-PARTICIPANT observation?
A non-participant observation is where the researcher observes from a DISTANCE and so is NOT part of the group that they are observing.
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(A03) Limitation of PARTICIPANT observations? (practical difficulties)
P: A limitation of participant observations is that there can be practical difficulties associated with this type of observational method.
E: This is because it can be difficult for a researcher to remain unobserved and can also be problematic for a researcher to accurately note and view / record behaviours. Reflections on behaviours may have to be written retrospectively.
E: This reduces the validity and the accuracy of the information/details obtained as it can be DIFFICULT FOR THE RESEARCHER TO REMAIN BOTH UNOBSERVED AND BE NEAR ENOUGH TO THE SUBJECT(S) BEING OBSERVED TO RECORD ALL DETAILS, meaning some key behaviours may be missed.
- Reflections on behaviours being WRITTEN RETROSPECTIVELY is also an issue as the researcher is LIKELY TO FORGET SOME ASPECTS OF WHAT THEY OBSERVED as this would often be done hours later.
50
Why is it problematic that an observer BECOMES PART OF THE GROUP THAT THEY ARE STUDYING in participant observations?
The observer becomes part of the group that they are studying (e.g. a researcher observing a workforce by having the researcher actually join in the workforce to produce a first-hand account) --> Therefore the researcher may lose objectivity.
51
(A03) Limitation of PARTICIPANT observations? (ethical issues).
P: There are associated ethical issues with this type of observational method.
E: Participant observations can involve a degree of deception as participants may not be aware that the researcher is in fact studying their behaviour.
E: This is an ethical weakness as in participant observations, participants HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE TO PROVIDE FULLY INFORMED CONSENT. Therefore, their right to withdraw from the observational study might be violated or unclear if they do not know they are being observed. Might cause the participants psychological harm.
52
(A03) STRENGTH of non participant observations? (less practical difficulties - where does the researcher observe from?)
P: There are LESS practical difficulties associated with non-participant observations.
E: Non-participant observations are where the researcher observes from a DISTANCE and is NOT PART OF THE GROUP THEY ARE OBSERVING.
E: This is a strength as the researcher is able to RECORD BEHAVIOUR IN A MORE OBJECTIVE MANNER. Therefore, there is likely to be MORE ACCURATE AND VALID details and information being obtained.
53
(A03) Potential limitation of non-participant observations (does the researcher have a lot of insight?)
P: A limitation of non-participant observations is that the researcher may lose valuable insight compared to PARTICIPANT observational design.
54
Explain how observer bias can be reduced? - how can subjective analysis be reduced?
ALL methods of observation may be prone to bias if a researcher is conducting the research in isolation.
One way to reduce subjective analysis is through the use of INTER-RATER RELIABILITY CHECKS.
Many researchers would conduct the observational study IN ISOLATION WITH AGREED BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORIES and following the observation, their individual reports would then be compared to check for agreements in their judgements.
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What is Content Analysis?
Content analysis is a way of ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA in a NUMERICAL WAY.
Content analysis transforms QUALITITATIVE DATA INTO QUANTITATIVE DATA THROUGH THE USE OF CODING UNITS (categories).
56
What are the FOUR stages involved in a content analysis?
1. Read the data + familiarise self with data.
2. Researchers then create and devise their coding units.
3. Tally the coding units every time is appears (researchers tally).
4. Analyse the coding units and compare them.
57
What does content analyse involve analysing content from?
SECONDARY SOURCES (i.e. can be questionnaires/interviews).
-Often media based, such as advertisements, films and diary entries.
-It can also be used to analyse communication between people. Any verbal information must be transcribed before the analysis begins.
58
In order to catergorise data, what are the two approaches researchers can use?
1. TOP-DOWN Approach
2. BOTTOM-UP Approach
59
What is meant by a 'top-down approach' in content analysis?
Give an example in terms of analysing gender-role stereotyping in films?
Top - Down approaches use PRE-DEFINED CATEGORIES that will be IMPOSED BEFORE THE RESEARCH BEGINS.
For example, if you were looking at gender-role stereotyping in films you may choose female-stereotypical behaviours such as 'cooking', 'cleaning', 'looking after children'.
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What is meant by a 'bottom-up approach' in content analysis?
How would this be done?
Bottom-Up approaches ALLOW CATEGORIES TO EMERGE FROM THE CONTENT. The categories are UNDEFINED, NOT PRE-DETERMINED.
-The researcher would need to have a quick overview of the films first to decide on/determine what the categories are going to be.
2. Then researcher would have to watch the film carefully and count how many types each category appears.
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In quantitative analysis (TOP-DOWN), what are researchers required to create?
What must this be?
Similar to an observation, researchers will be required TO CREATE A CODING SYSTEM. This includes conducting a tally each time a category / behavioural category occurs. (more reliable/accurate).
The coding unit must be PRE-DEFINED and clearly operationalised. This is important as otherwise coding units can be subjective OR opinion based --> you need to make clear exactly what is is you are looking for (e.g. specific types of verbal/physical aggression) to improve validity.
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What can then be carried out?
STATISTICAL ANALYSES can then be carried out.
This method makes analysis more reliable, scientific, valid so researchers can look for specific differences/relationships in the data.
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How can the RELIABILITY of content analysis be assessed?
INTER-RATER RELIABILITY CHECKS can be carried out.
This is the extent to which two (or more) different researchers agree on how to code the content.
The researchers could SEPARATELY ESTABLISH CODING UNITS (top-down or bottom up) and compare the categories before analysis. They may wish to modify these ahead of the coding itself.
The researchers would then code the data separately and compare their findings.
64
Describe how a researcher would carry out a QUALITATIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS (thematic analysis - BOTTOM-UP analysis - e.g. recordings.
(CLUE: SIX STEPS)
1 – The researchers should familiarise themselves with data. Verbal data or use of recordings must be transcribed --> use of recordings to make a transcription of the interview.
2 – Use coding to initially analyse the transcripts. GENERATE INITIAL CODES BASED ON WHAT IT IS YOU ARE RESEARCHING. Highlighting anything in the data that links to what you are researching.
3 – Review the transcription/codes looking for EMERGENT THEMES/ IDEAS THAT MIGHT BE LINKED TO WHAT YOU ARE RESEARCHING (e.g. aggressive behaviour - for example, alcohol misuse, family violence, parental arguments).
At this point, you should have a LONG LIST OF DIFFERENT CODES and you now need to sort them into POTENTIAL THEMES.
4 – REVIEW THEMES --> Are you happy with your themes? Is there any cross-over? Should any themes be collapsed into one another?
5 – DEFINE AND NAME THEMES.
6 – WRITE UP OF REPORT.
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How is qualitative (thematic analysis - bottom-up) an alternative to having a coding system (top-down approach)?
Qualitative analysis (thematic analysis) is alternative to having a coding system.
In thematic analysis, THEMES EMERGE FROM THE DATA AND THE RESEARCHERS ATTEMPT TO CATEGORISE IT TO LOOK FOR TRENDS AND THEMES.
(E.G. ANALYSING WORDS, MORE QUALITATIVE DATA, MAKE OWN THEMATIC CATEGORIES) - open to interpretation, subjective, not clearly defined codes.
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(A03) Strength of Content Analysis - HIGHLY RELIABLE METHOD.
P: Content analysis is a highly reliable method.
E: The PROCEDURE ITSELF IS EASILY REPLICATED DUE TO THE STANDARDISATION OF CODING UNITS and due to nature of the pre-existing secondary data.
E: As such, this MEANS THAT THE SAME MATERIAL CAN BE CODED ON MORE THAN ONR OCCASION (INTRA– rater reliability) or by different researchers (INTER-rater reliability).
L: Thus making it possible to check for consistency (reliability) in findings.
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(A03) Limitation of Content Analysis - The method itself might be easily replicated but how might subjectivity impact the consistency of what is found?
P: Content analysis is PRONE TO SUBJECTIVE ANALYSIS.
E: The data ANALYSIS INVOLVES RESEARCHERS INTERPRETING QUALITATIVE DATA FROM SECONDARY SOURCES alongside a CODING SYSTEM.
E: This is likely to be AFFECTED BY THE GENDER OR CULTURAL BACKGROUND of a researcher.
L: Therefore, this means the method is prone to researcher bias.
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(A03) Strength of CONTENT ANALYSIS - Strength (HIGHLY ETHICAL - WHERE DOES DATA COME FROM?)
P: Content analysis is likely to be highly ethical.
E: Much of the material that is to be analysed is already in the public domain (e.g. court transcripts), which might overcome some ethical issues. --> secondary data - fully informed consent gained as it pre-exists.
E: This means that the method itself does not involve the direct use of participants in research.
L: As such, this means there are less ethical guidelines to consider that may restrict research.
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(A03) Limitation of CONTENT ANALYSIS) - ethical conditions still to be made.
P: There are still some important ethical considerations to be made when carrying out a content analysis.
E: The researcher needs to ensure that they have the consent of all stakeholders to analyse confidential material --> Might include material such as medical records and documents which in some cases might be difficult.
E: The researcher must make sure the information they are analysing are allowed to be used, private sensitive information. This can make RESEARCHING CERTAIN TOPICS VERY DIFFICULT TO INVESTIGATE.
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Outline what is involved in 'self-report'?
Self-report is where the participant gives information to the researcher/provides details of own feelings/thoughts/behaviour.
*Self-report involves responding to questions on a questionnaire/during interview.
*Questionnaires can involve open/closed questions OR interviews can be structured/unstructured.
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What are self-report techniques?
Which self-report technique is the most effective at gathering information from large samples?
Which is most likely to gather QUANTITATIVE DATA and QUALITATIVE DATA?
Self-report techniques includes questionnaires or interviews and can gather information from large numbers of people.
-Questionnaires would be the most effective way of gathering information from large samples because they are easily distributed and do not require specialist training.
-They often investigate attitudes or opinions on a particular topic.
They can gather qualitative or quantitative data (questionnaires more likely to gather QUANTITIVE DATA, LESS DETAILED INFORMATION and interviews are more likely to gather qualitative data - rich in detail).
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Interviews and questionnaires differ in terms of the data gathered and how they were conducted AND they also differ in terms of their RELIABILITY, GENERALISABILITY AND VALIDITY. HOW?
Reliability - questionnaires can be easily repeated and redistributed to check for the consistency of results.
Generalisability - questionnaires can obtain data from large samples, interviews usually involve one person - low generalisability to the wider population.
Validity - Interviews tend to produce more rich, detailed qualitative data, whereas questionnaires produce less detailed information.
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(A01) What are questionnaires and what do they involve?
-Do they involve social interaction?
-What format do they come in?
-Are questions pre-written, and how are they distributed?
-What type of data do they gather?
Questionnaires DO NOT INVOLVE SOCIAL INTERACTION BETWEEN A RESEARCHER AND PARTICIPANT.
-They have a WRITTEN FORMAT so there tends to be less flexibility about the questions than other self-report methods.
-Space can be left for the participants to write comments but otherwise set questions are answered; they use a standardised procedure.
They consist of a set of pre-written questions which can be printed and given to Ps face to face, or can be posted, filled in by phone, completed over the internet, or simply left in public places.
They gather self-report data --> where the participant gives information to the researcher/provides details of own feelings/thoughts/behaviour.
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What type of questions (open/closed) make up questionnaires?
What rating scales do closed questions make use of?
They are made up of mainly closed questions but there may be some open questions included so mainly gather QUANTITATIVE data.
Closed questions tend to make use of rating scales such as Likert scales --> Likert scales are rating scales used to measure opinions, attitudes or behaviours. (E.g. Very dissatisfied, dissatisfied, neither satisfied/dissatisfied, satisfied, very satisfied).
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How are questionnaires distributed and filled out (is the researcher always present?)
-They are often sent through the post or may be given to participants to fill in during their own time WITHOUT a researcher being present.
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What are questionnaires particularly useful for?
Can they offer some flexibility, if so, how?
Questionnaires are USEFUL FOR SURVEYING ATTITUDES, OPINIONS AND BELIEFS AND BEHAVIOURS.
They can also offer some flexibility as questions can be quite broad and invite participants to answer in their own words (open questions) producing detailed qualitative data OR they can be quite narrow with forced choice responses such as tick boxes (closed questions) producing easy to analyse quantitative data.
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(A03) Strength of Questionnaires - REPLICABILITY. (Are all the procedures the same, why?)
P: Questionnaires are highly REPLICABLE because it is easy to ensure procedures are the same for all participants due to their STANDARDISED format – this allows researchers to easily redistribute and check findings for reliability.
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(A03) Limitation of Questionnaires - SOCIAL DESIRABILITY.
P: A limitation of questionnaires is that people may modify their answers to show themselves in the best light - known as social desirability bias.
E: This is a limitation as this reduces the validity of any subsequent findings from questionnaires--> respondents may deliberately answer in a way which is socially acceptable.
This is likely to occur within both types of questionnaires (usually more open-ended).
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(A03) Strength of Questionnaires (time and cost efficient- are they easily distributed?).
P: A strength of questionnaires is that they are time (and therefore cost) efficient, as a large sample of participants can be reached quickly and easily; a large amount of data can be gained and analysed relatively quickly and easily.
E: This is because questionnaires are easily distributed - they do not require the same time as interviews do. Questionnaires also don’t require specialist training to distribute and so are easy to repeat. Statistical analysis can therefore be used.
E: This is a strength as it means that data can be collected from a LARGE number of people, meaning they they are higher in replicability than interviews --> might also improve the reliability of questionnaires - they can be easily replicated to check for the consistency of findings.
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Strength + Counter of Questionnaires (closed questions producing quantitative data).
P: A strength of questionnaires is that if they uses closed questions which generate quantitative data, this is easier to analyse and draw comparisons than with open questions which generate qualitative data which is difficult to analyse.
HOWEVER...
CA: This is also a weakness of questionnaires as they PRODUCE LESS DETAILED INFORMATION, WHEREAS INTERVIEWS PRODUCE RICH, DETAILED QUALITATIVE DATA. LESS INSIGHT INTO THE PARTICIPANT.
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(A01) What are INTERVIEWS? What do they involve?
Interviews are different from questionnaires as THEY INVOLVE SOCIAL INTERACTION and researchers REQUIRE TRAINING IN HOW TO INTERVIEW.
Interviews therefore involve a trained researcher asking questions to a participant and responses being recorded or transcribed.
Interviews gather self-report data, which is where respondents provide data about themselves --> questionnaires and interviews may be used to gather this.
They are made up of both closed and open questions:
-Closed questions can be responded to with 'Yes' or 'No'- they usually gather quantitative data.
-Open questions require more detail - more likely to produce qualitative data.
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What are the THREE types of interview?
1. Structured
2. Semi-Structured
3. Unstructured
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What characterises a STRUCTURED INTERVIEW?
-Fixed PRE-DETERMINED closed questions.
-They are usually used in large-scale interview-based surveys e.g. market-research.
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What characterises a SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW?
-Guidelines for questions to be asked, but the phrasing and timing are left up to the interviewer and questions may be open-ended.
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What characterises a UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW?
-May contain a topic area but NO FIXED QUESTIONS.
-The researcher asks questions, but then asks further questions which depend on the answers that the participants give.
-The interviewer helps participants and clarifies interview questions.
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When designing an interview, researchers must consider...
1. The CATEGORIES OF DATA REQUIRED (quantitative and/or qualitative data) by their aim and must generate an appropriate set of questions (open or closed questions).
2. They must also decide WHETHER TO USE A STRUCTURED OR UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW.
3. In addition, they will consider ISSUES SUCH AS SOCIAL DESIRABILITY, BIAS, AND ETHICAL ISSUES and will decide how responses are to be gathered during the interview (i.e. whether the interview will be digitally recorded or whether the interviewer will make notes throughout).
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(A03) Strength of Interviews (instances where interviews are more appropriate?)
Interviews may be MORE APPROPRIATE than other methods for dealing with complex / sensitive issues.
The researcher can gauge if the participant is distressed or not meaning they could pause or stop the research or offer additional support if needed.
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(A03) Strength of Interviews (High validity of data)
Because the researcher is present, INTERESTING ISSUES (as well as any misunderstandings) CAN BE FOLLOWED UP IMMEDIATELY (i.e. through follow up questionnaires).
As such, more rich and insightful data can be gathered, meaning that data is highly VALID.
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(A03) Strength of Interviews (QUALITATIVE DATA GATHERED).
Lots of rich detailed data is gathered (especially in unstructured interviews) compared to a questionnaire, as there are far fewer constraints in place.
This means more QUALITATIVE data is obtained --> offers more insight.
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(A03) Limitation of Interviews (Social Desirability).
P: Interviews are even more likely than questionnaires to elicit social desirability answers from participants.
E: This is because respondents may feel LESS ABLE to reveal personal information in face-to-face interviews than in questionnaires, meaning responses may not be a genuine reflection of the interviewee as they are presenting themself in a favourable way.
E: This is a limitation as this may impact the validity of findings --> Low validity - data not truthful/accurate.
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(A03) Limitation of Interviews (low inter-rater reliability)
P: There can be low inter-rater reliability between interviews (of the same participant), as interviewer effects are more likely.
E: Features of an interviewer such as tone of the interviewer or facial expressions may have an impact on how the participant chooses to respond in that particular interview.
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(A03) Limitation of Interviews (time consuming!)
P: Interviews are extremely time consuming to prepare for and conduct.
E: For example, detailed data sets (particularly from unstructured interviews) take time to analyse and are often hard to compare across a sample. Interviews should also be conducted by trained psychologists.
E: This is a limitation as interviews are also more costly than questionnaires.
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(A01)What is a correlation?
What do correlations describe?
A correlation is the MEASUREMENT OF THE EXTENT TO WHICH PAIRS OF RELATED VALUES ON TWO VARIABLES TEND TO CHANGE TOGETHER.
Correlations simply DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO VARIABLES IN STATISTICAL TERMS, but is not a research method in itself.
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How is data collected for correlational analysis?
Data is collected FROM VARIOUS RESEARCH METHODS such as OBSERVATIONS, QUESTIONNAIRES (SELF-REPORT METHODS).
Experiments can be analysed to see if there is a relationship between two variables.
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Unlike experiments which have an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE and a DEPENDENT VARIABLE, correlations are described in terms of what?
Correlations are described in terms of CO-VARIABLES.
-This is because both variables in a correlation vary (change) and are measured, and neither one is set or controlled by the researcher.
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How can co-variables be measured?
These can be measured in various ways, for example, from self-report methods such as questionnaires.
-Both measures come from THE SAME INDIVIDUAL or FROM THE SAME ABSTRACT UNIT (e.g. average temperature and number of aggressive acts committed).
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What data do correlations use?
Correlations tend to use INTERVAL AND ORDINAL DATA.
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Correlations can be POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE. What does a positive correlation describe?
A positive correlation describes a RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH BOTH VARIABLES INCREASE TOGETHER.
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What is an EXAMPLE of a positive correlation?
The relationship BETWEEN HOURS SPENT REVISING FOR AN EXAM AND THE GRADE ATTAINED IS A POSITIVE CORRELATION ---> This is because as hours spent revising increase, then the result attained also increases.
Others include increased exercise and increased fitness levels.
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What does a negative correlation describe?
A relationship IN WHICH ONE VARIABLE INCREASES AS THE OTHER DECREASES.
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What is the STRENGTH of a correlation described as?
The strength of a correlation is described as A CORRELATION CO-EFFICIENT.
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What do coefficients range from?
Coefficients range from -1.0 to +1.0 (perfect positive and perfect negative respectively).
A coefficient of LESS THAN ZERO describes a negative correlation.
MEANWHILE...
A coefficient ABOVE ZERO describes a positive correlation.
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How do we determine the STRENGTH OF A CORRELATION?
0.0 to 0.3 can be considered as weak
0.3 to 0.7 can be considered as moderate.
ABOVE 0.7 can be considered strong.
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What does a correlation coefficient indicate?
HOW ACCURATELY we can use measurement of one variable to predict another.
The stronger the relationship between the two variables the more accurately we can use one variable to predict the other.
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What is one way to investigate the RELATIONSHIP between two variables? (i.e. what presentation of data do we use?)
One way to investigate the relationship between two variables is to plot VARIABLE A ON one axis and VARIABLE B on the other.
These graphs are called SCATTERGRAMS (also called scatter plots or scatter graphs).
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What does a SCATTERGRAM (used to investigate the relationship between two variables) look like?
Is it possible to get an anomaly in your results? What is meant by this?
-A scattergram has ONE CO-VARIABLE ON THE X-AXIS (HORIZONTAL) AND THE OTHER ON THE Y-AXIS (VERTICAL), and a LINE OF BEST FIT IS PLOTTED.
The gradient of the line is the same as the correlation coefficient. It is possible to get an anomaly in your results. This is where one point is plotted away from the line of best fit.
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What is meant by a 'curvilinear relationship'?
Give an example of this?
Some relationships are more complex than positive or negative correlations and can be curvilinear --> This means that the RATIO OF CHANGE BETWEEN TWO CO-VARIABLES IS NOT CONSTANT (meaning non-linear as a correlation is linear when change is constant).
An example is the Yerkes-Dodson law of arousal.
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(A03) What is a strength of CORRELATIONS (What do they allow us to investigate?)
P: Correlations allow us to investigate otherwise unethical situations.
E: For example, it would be unethical to use an experiment in order to investigate effects on sensitive issues such as child abuse, depression etc.
E: Such investigations would not be ethical to carry out experimentally as it would involve manipulating/controlling different variables, which may cause psychological harm for participants and a lack of consent from participants.
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Why are correlations sometimes more appropriate? (think ethically and researcher interference!)
Correlations are more ethically appropriate because the researcher DOES NOT DIRECTYLY INTERFERE IN THE LIFESTYLE OF THE PARTICIPANTS.
For example, researchers cannot manipulate how much TV somebody watches in a study on the effects of TV on academic performance AS THE RESEARCHER WOULD BE BLAMED FOR THE DECLINE IN ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE.
In correlational studies, the researcher is dissolved of responsibility. The co-variable is NOT manipulated (in an experiment the IV is manipulated but there is NO MANIPULATION in a correlation).
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Practice Exam Q:
The relationship between daily recreational screen time and academic performance.
Outline ONE reason why it was appropriate to conduct a correlation rather than an experiment in this case. (2 marks)
It would be DIFFICULT to dictate/ control the number of hours the students should watch TV.
It may be MORE ETHICAL to conduct a correlation rather than restrict how many hours each student watched TV - unethical to investigate and manipulate IF LIKELY TO HAVE AN IMPACT ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE.
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(A03) Strength of Correlations (can lead to new research).
P: Correlations can lead to new research and be used as a starting point before committing to an experimental study.
E: Correlations are carried out with relative ease and input from a researcher (for example, nothing needs to be set up artificially as they use pre-existing data).
E: Correlations can therefore decide if new research should be generated to investigate relationships that may not have been thought previously.
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(A03) Strength of Correlations (Cost and Time efficient - why - what type of data is used?)
P: Correlations are relatively COST and TIME efficient.
E: Correlations frequently use PRE-EXISTING SECONDARY DATA (e.g. government statistics).
E: This is a strength as researchers can readily access the data without many time or cost considerations.
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(A03) What is the MAIN limitation of correlations?
P: Correlations do not infer causation - i.e. we CANNOT ESTABLISH CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS.
E: All correlations tell us is WHETHER A RELATIONSHIP EXISTS BETWEEN TWO CO-VARIABLES.
E: This is a limitation as correlations CANNOT TELL US IF ONE VARIABLE CAUSES THE OTHER and therefore their USEFULNESS IS LIMITED.
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There may be a correlation between day care and children’s behaviour; e.g. the more hours a child spends in day care the more behavioural problems.
What does a correlation NOT tell us here?
The correlation does not tell us specifically WHAT is the direct cause of the child's behavioural problems.
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(A03) Second limitation of correlations (validity issues - think about untested variables that still may have an impact).
P: There may be validity issues with correlations.
E: For example, it might be that another untested variable is impacting upon the relationship, this is known as the third variable problem. (e.g. there may be a correlation between stress and life expectancy, however other factors could be having an impact like eating habits, lifestyle).
E: This is a limitation as it means that inaccurate conclusions are commonplace.
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(A03) Limitation of Correlations - (validity issues in terms of data collection methods)
P: There might be VALIDITY ISSUES IN TERMS OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS.
E: The method used to gather the measures (co-variables) may lack validity. They often USE SELF-REPORT METHODS (INTERVIEWS AND QUESTIONNAIRES) which may lead to SOCIAL DESIRABILITY).
E: This is a limitation as it may invalidate the correlation if there have been flaws in data collection.
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(A01) What is a CASE STUDY?
A case study is WHEN A PSYCHOLOGIST FOCUSES ON ONE EVENT OR PERSON/ SMALL GROUP and gathers detailed data usually through a variety of techniques.
For example, these may include interviews, observations, psychometric testing, experimentation.
Researchers will often produce a case history of the subject and may choose to use a number of different methods to research the case further. Therefore, a case study CAN PRODUCE QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA.
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What is meant by the term 'triangulation'? How is it often used in case studies?
Triangulation REFERS TO THE USE OF MULTIPLE METHODS (observation, interviews) OR DATA SOURCES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH to develop a comprehensive, holistic understanding of an individual, small group or event.
Triangulation can then be USED TO TEST VALIDITY (accuracy) THROUGH THE CONVERGENCE OF INFORMATION FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES.
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How might triangulation affect the validity of the research? What does it allow researchers to do?
-Triangulation (as it involves the use of multiple methods - observation, interviews) enables checks for consistency, reliability and validity. This enhances the validity of the research as opposed to questionnaires, for example, which are only a single method of data collection.
-Triangulation can be used to test validity (accuracy) of information through the convergence of information from different sources.
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How long are case studies typically conducted for?
-Typically case studies are conducted over an extended period of time (months or years) and involve a number of different researcher. Most case studies can be described as LONGITUDINAL.
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In what situations might case studies be used?
Case studies are used in UNIQUE SITUATIONS (e.g. an individual having a rare condition) which is not seen in the majority of the population.
E.g. Clive Wearing, who had a rare viral infection.
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Case studies tend to take a holistic view of human behaviour. What does this mean?
To take a holistic view is to look at behaviour as a whole and all contributing factors. Researchers often consider various factors influencing their behaviour or mental processes.
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Case studies are preferred by psychodynamic and humanistic psychologists.
How might cognitive psychologists use case studies? What sort of methods might they use specifically?
-Observations of behaviour - make inferences.
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(A03) Strength of Case Studies (high validity - think data type gathered and how much insight this offers us?)
P: Case studies are HIGH in validity.
E: This is because case studies typically produce RICH, DETAILED QUALITATIVE DATA and are often longitudinal, so changes can be observed over time whereas questionnaires tend to produce less detailed information, providing just a 'snapshot' of experience.
-The use of triangulation in case studies further adds to the validity of findings as it uses multiple techniques to acquire data (observations, brain scans, questionnaires, interviews) enables checks for consistency/validity of findings.
E: This is a strength as a rich yield of data makes detailed insights and deeper analysis possible, providing an accurate and exhaustive measure of what the study is hoping to measure.
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(A03) Second Strength of Case Studies (stimulating new paths for research - think Broca's area)
P: A strength of case studies is that they can stimulate new paths for research.
E: For example, Broca's area. This case study taught us about new research, enriched knowledges, conclude that this area is to do with speech production.
E: This is a strength as the detail collected on a single case may lead to interesting findings that conflict with current theories.
E: As such, case studies are often the catalyst for further experimental research.
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(A03) Limitation of case studies - population validity.
P: Case studies are LOW in population validity.
E: This is because they typically involve only one individual or a small group who are often unique or suffering from a rare condition.
E: This is a limitation as researchers are therefore unable to generalise findings.
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(A03) Limitation of Case Studies (LOW in reliability).
How does this differ when using questionnaires?
P: Case studies are LOW in reliability.
E: Case studies usually investigate rare, unique situations and typically only involve one individual or small group - i.e. unique conditions.
E: This is a limitation as researchers are therefore unable to replicate the study to check if results are consistently found as this would be impractical.
L: Each individual and their experience is also unique and subjective, and therefore results cannot be generalised to others and the wider population.
-Contrastingly, questionnaires are easily repeated as they are easily redistributed to check for the consistency of results.
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(A03) Limitation of Case Studies (validity issues - think about how and why the researcher may lose objectivity when conducting a case study)
P: There are validity issues with case studies.
E: Case studies are often longitudinal so the researcher may get to know the individual/ group well. This means relationships might form between the researcher and participant due to extensive testing and frequent contact.
E: How might this have an impact upon analysis of data? Why?
E: This is a limitation as this may impact the analysis of data as the researcher may LOSE objectivity --> This may make the data invalid as researchers may become overly invested in the study and lose objectivity.
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Practice Exam Q:
Psychologists sometimes use case studies to study children. One example was of a boy who was discovered at the age of six. He had been kept in a darkened room and had had almost no social contact with people.
(a) How could a psychologist maintain confidentiality when reporting a case study? (2 marks)
-Confidentiality could be maintained by making sure individuals are not identifiable when reporting the case study.
-This could be done by using a different name or initials, or the researcher could avoid publishing details of address, schools etc.
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(b) Psychologists use a range of techniques to gather information in case studies.
Outline one technique which the psychologist could use in this case study. (2 marks)
Psychologists could observe the boys behaviour in different situations OR they may interview people, such as his family members to find out the circumstances of his early life.
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Q: A researcher wanted to investigate agoraphobia by studying Patient X. The researcher designed a questionnaire to find out about Patient X’s experiences. However, a colleague suggested that the researcher might do better to conduct a case study.
Explain one or more reasons why it might be better to conduct a case study than a questionnaire. (4 marks)
-Case studies can be longitudinal and so changes in Patient X's experience can be observed over time, whereas questionnaires tend to provide just a 'snapshot' of experience.
-Case studies usually involve triangulation - the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research (e.g. observations, interviews, etc.). This enables checks for consistency/reliability/validity, whereas a questionnaire is a single method of data collection.
-Case studies provide rich, detailed qualitative data, whereas questionnaires tend to produce less detailed information - closed questions for example.
Other ideas:
-Researcher is present (often over a long period of time) to offer support/debrief if the participant appears emotive or triggering questions are asked. The researcher is more likely to be able to identify if further support is needed. Meanwhile, in a case study the researcher is only with the participant for a short period and are therefore less likely to identify whether further support is needed.
-Case studies have low reliability - not easy to replicate as they usually investigate unique situations, meaning researchers are unable to check if results are consistently found. Contrastingly, questionnaires are easily repeated as they are easily redistributed to check for the consistency of results.
