Section B: Scientific Processes

Question 1

Sampling: What is meant by the term ‘target population’?

Answer 1

A ‘target population’ is a group of people (who share a given set of characteristics) about who the researcher wishes to draw a conclusion.

-As the target population is normally too large to allow all of the people to be tested, due to reasons of cost and practicality, the researcher just obtains a sample instead.

Question 2

Why should a sample be REPRESENTATIVE OF THE TARGET POPULATION?

Answer 2

-Because the researcher intends to GENERALISE ANY CONCLUSIONS GENERATED using their sample TO THE ENTIRE TARGET POPULATION, the sample should be REPRESENTATIVE of the entire population (i.e. they should share the same characteristics).

If the sample is NOT representative, it is said to have LOW POPULATION VALIDITY.

No method of sampling can guarantee a representative sample, but some are better than others!

Question 3

What are the FIVE sampling techniques?

Answer 3

-RANDOM sampling.
-OPPORTUNITY sampling.
-SYSTEMATIC sampling.
-STRATIFIED sampling.
-VOLUNTEER sampling.

Question 4

(A01) What is random sampling?

ii) How is this carried out?

Answer 4

-With this technique, EVERY PERSON in the TARGET POPULATION has an EQUAL CHANCE of being selected.

1. The researcher first OBTAINS A LIST OF EVERYONE IN THE TARGET POPULATION.
   2.Then a computerised random generator or the ‘names out of a hat’ technique is used to select the required amount of participants.
   (e.g. to form a sample of 20 participants from a target population of 100, the first 20 names out of the hat are selected to take part in the research).

Alternatively, a random number / name generator could be used.

Question 5

(A03) STRENGTH of random sampling (would the sample be representative?)

Answer 5

P: The sample is likely to be representative.
E: The researcher has NO CONTROL over WHO IS SELECTED which REDUCES THE CHANCE OF A BIAS SAMPLE BEING SELECTED.
E: This therefore improves population validity compared to other techniques.

Question 6

(A03) LIMITATION of random sampling (think about the process - time consuming?)

Answer 6

P: Random sampling can be DIFFICULT and TIME CONSUMING.
E: Before the sample is selected, the researcher needs to make a list of all the sample and put the names into a random generator/hat.
E: This is a weakness as it is particularly problematic if there is a large population –> This type of sampling is not time efficient, unless you have a very small sample.

Question 7

(A03) Limitation of random sampling (Is the sample guaranteed to be representative?)

Answer 7

P: Random sampling as a sampling method does NOT GUARANTEE a representative sample.
E: Even though the method is random, SOME GROUPS MAY BE OVERREPRESENTED or NOT SELECTED.
E: Therefore, this may be less representative than other methods such as STRATIFIED SAMPLING.

Question 8

(A01) What is OPPORTUNITY SAMPLING?

Answer 8

With this technique, the researcher SELECTS ANYONE WHO IS READILY AVAILABLE and WILLING TO TAKE PART. The researcher simply ASKS THE PEOPLE WHO IT IS MOST CONVINIENT FOR THEM TO ASK.
(e.g. a researcher who also works as a university lecturer may ask students in their seminar group to participate in their study.)

Question 9

(A03) Strength of opportunity sampling (think about the process of obtaining a sample - is it easy?)

Answer 9

P: Sample is EASY TO OBTAIN and THEREFORE COST EFFECTIVE.
E: The researcher uses THE FIRST PEOPLE THAT THEY SEE –>PPTS ARE READILY AVAILABLE.
E: Therefore, a sample does not need to be identified prior to the research taking place.

Question 10

(A03) Limitation of opportunity sampling (is the sample likely to be representative if ppts are readily available?)

Answer 10

P: The sample is likely to be UNREPRESENTATIVE.
E: The researcher USES THE FIRST PEOPLE THAT THEY SEE.
E: Therefore, ppts are likely to SHARE SIMILAR CHARACTERISTICS (e.g. all psychology students) and BACKGROUNDS (reducing population validity).

Question 11

(A03) Limitation of opportunity sampling (ethical issues associated –> pressure on ppts to take part?)

Answer 11

P: There may be ethical issues associated with this sampling technique.
E: The researcher uses PARTICIPANTS WHO ARE READILY AVAILABLE AND WILLING TO TAKE PART.
E: Therefore, students of lecturers, for example, MAY FEEL PRESSURE TO TAKE PART which would CREATE PROBLEMS SURROUNDING CONSENT AND RIGHT TO WITHDRAW.

Question 12

(A01) What is volunteer sampling?

Answer 12

With this technique, participants PUT THEMSELVES FORWARD FOR INCLUSION (i.e. they self-select).
-The researcher places an initial advertisement in a magazine/newspaper, on the radio, on the internet/ via email or on a public notice board (i.e. workplace or gym), asking for volunteers to take part in research.
-They may also place questionnaires somewhere public and ask people to return their answers.

Question 13

(A03) Strength of volunteer sampling (locating a niche group of people?)

Answer 13

P: Volunteer sampling may be the ONLY WAY TO LOCATE A PARTICULARLY NICHE GROUP OF PEOPLE (e.g. people who suffered from child abuse, diabetes).
E: The researcher can ADVERTISE FOR THIS SPECIFIC GROUP who MAY BE OTHERWISE DIFFICULT TO IDENTIFY.
E: This can therefore save time in gathering the sample where niche groups are required.

Question 14

(A03) Weakness of Volunteer Sampling (sample lacking generalisation?)

Answer 14

P: The sample MAY LACK GENERALISATION.
E: The researcher uses ADVERTISEMENTS that are published so that participants can PUT THEMSELVES FORWARD. This therefore relies upon people seeing an advertisement in order to put themselves forward
E: This therefore limits the POPULATION VALIDITY as it FAILS TO REFLECT A WIDE VARIETY OF MEMBERS FROM THE TARGET POPULATION –> it may REDUCE THE SIZE AND VARIABILITY OF THE SAMPLE (similar backgrounds e.g. all readers of the same newspaper).

Question 15

(A03) Counter - Strength (people self-selecting themselves) in volunteer sampling - Why is this positive?

Answer 15

P: The researcher uses advertisements to recruit ppts, meaning participants put themselves forward. Such ppts are LIKELY TO BE COOPERATIVE AND MOTIVATED (shared characteristics).
E: This is arguably a strength as you can ensure all participants fully consent to taking part and ppts are likely to be more engaged as they are willing to take part –> researchers can rely on them to give honest, genuine results instead of rushing as they want to leave the experiment.

Question 16

(A01) What is SYSTEMATIC sampling?

Answer 16

-This is where every nth member of the target population is selected, for example, every 5th pupil on a register.
-A sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population, organised into for instance, alphabetical order.
-A sampling system is nominated (every 3rd/ 5th person) or this may be determined randomly to reduce bias.
-The researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is complete.

Question 17

(A03) Strength of SYSTEMATIC sampling? (avoids what from the researcher and would the sample be representative?)

Answer 17

P: Systematic sampling AVOIDS researcher bias.
E: Once the system for selection has been established, the researcher has NO INFLUENCE over who is chosen (even more the case if the system is randomly selected).
E: This therefore INCREASES VALIDITY and should lead TO A MORE REPRESENTATIVE sample.

Question 18

(A03) Weakness of SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (does it GUARANTEE a representative sample?)

Answer 18

P: Systematic sampling as a sampling method DOES NOT GUARANTEE A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE.
E: Even though the method is RANDOM, some groups may be OVERREPRESENTED or NOT SELECTED.
E: Therefore, this may be LESS REPRESENTATIVE than other methods such as STRATFIED SAMPLING.

Question 19

(A01) What is STRATIFIED SAMPLING?

Answer 19

-This is when the COMPOSITION OF A SAMPLE REFLECTS THE PROPORTIONS OF PEOPLE IN SUB-GROUPS (STRATA) WITHIN THE TARGET POPULATION.

1. The researcher would first IDENTIFY the different strata that make up the population.
2. Then, the proportions needed for the sample to be representative need to be worked out. The participants that make up each strata are selected using random sampling (e.g. all names written down and put into hat, the first ones pulled out make up the sample).

Question 20

GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING TO OBTAIN A SAMPLE?

Answer 20

In Manchester, 40% of people support Manchester City, 40% Manchester United, 15% Bolton and 5% Leeds.

In a sample of 20 participants - there would be (no of fans):
Manchester City: (40% of 20) = 8
Manchester United: 8
Bolton (15% of 20) = 3
Leeds (5% of 20) = 1

Question 21

(A03) Strength of STRATIFIED sampling (avoids researcher…)

Answer 21

P: Stratified sampling AVOIDS RESEARCHER BIAS.
E: Once subdivided into the strata, stratified sampling ensures that all groups are represented and the researcher HAS NO INFLUENCE OVER WHO IS CHOSEN.
E: As such, this method gives an ACCURATE REFLECTION of the target population which leads to INCREASED POPULATION VALIDITY.

Question 22

(A03) Limitation of STRATIFIED sampling (is it time consuming?)

Answer 22

P: Stratified sampling is TIME CONSUMING compared to other methods.
E: The researcher needs knowledge of the DIFFERENT STRATA THAT MAKE UP THE POPULATION and then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative then needs to be worked out. The participants that make up each strata are then selected using random sampling (names in hat!).
E: As such, this takes TIME and requires the researcher knowing ALL ppts and details of the sample.

Question 23

(A03) Limitation of Stratified sampling (is it completely representative?)

Answer 23

P: Stratified sampling is NOT completely representative.
E: Identified strata cannot reflect all of the possible sub-groups that exist.
E: Therefore, complete representation of the target population is not always possible.

Question 24

What is meant by ‘bias’ in terms of sampling?

Answer 24

When certain groups may be OVER or UNDER represented within the sample selected. For instance, too many people from one ethnic origin.

Question 25

What is meant by ‘generalisation’ in terms of sampling?

Answer 25

The extent to which CONCLUSIONS FROM A PARTICULAR INVESTIGATION CAN BE BROADLY APPLIED TO THE POPULATION. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative.

Question 26

What is an ‘aim’ in psychology?

Answer 26

An aim IDENTIFIES THE PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION.
-It is a straightforward expression of what the researcher is trying to find out from investigating.
-The aim typically involves the word “investigate” or “investigation”.

Question 27

What is a ‘hypothesis’ in psychology?

Answer 27

An OPERATIONALISED hypothesis is a PRECISE, TESTABLE STATEMENT ABOUT THE EXPECTED OUTCOME OF A PIECE OF RESEARCH (i.e. a prediction about a difference).

-A researcher would write a directional / non-directional hypothesis and a null hypothesis.

Question 28

What are the THREE types of hypothesis?

Answer 28

-Directional Hypothesis
-Non-Directional Hypothesis
-Null Hypothesis

Question 29

What is a DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS? (one-tailed test)

Answer 29

-This is when a researcher has a GOOD IDEA what is going to happen in a study (BASED ON PREVIOUS RESEARCH). They will predict a SPECIFIC OUTCOME.
(i.e. they will be specific about the direction of any differences in the way people behave –> ONE DIRECTION of results)

An example:
E.g. Participants will give MORE electric shocks to a stranger after playing an anti-social computer game (e.g. Grand Theft Auto) than after playing a non-aggressive game.

Question 30

What is a NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS? (two tailed test)

Answer 30

This is when a researcher is LESS SURE what is going to happen in a study (i.e. the findings could go either way).
-They therefore predict a more general outcome –> (i.e. that THERE WILL BE A DIFFERENCE in the way that people behave, BUT NOT WHICH DIRECTION THIS WILL BE IN - two tailed as could go in either direction).

An example:
E.g. There will be a significant difference between the numbers of times male and female drivers fail to stop at red lights.

Question 31

What is a NULL HYPOTHESIS?

Answer 31

When a researcher is CONFIDENT that the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE WILL HAVE NO EFFECT ON THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE, they select a null hypothesis.

An example:
E.g. There will be no difference in the number of trigrams recalled after 18 seconds compared to the number recalled after 3 seconds.

Question 32

(A01) In what circumstances might a PILOT STUDY be carried out?

Answer 32

-No research study is perfect.
-TO HELP FORSEE ANY COSTLY PROBLEMS, A SMALL SCALE ‘PILOT STUDY’ MAY BE CARRIED OUT AS A TRIAL RUN BEFORE THE RESEARCHERS COMMIT TO CONDUCTING THEIR FULL-SCALE MAIN STUDY.

Question 33

Pilot studies allow researchers to identify any potential problems in the …
(Give some examples of problems with INTERNAL VALIDITY)?

Answer 33

-Experimental Method OR Design chosen (i.e. if a researcher conducts a lab experiment, this may show them that they should have done a field/ may show issues with order effects or demand characteristics).

-Instructions given to participants (task validity, too hard/easy (ceiling effect when easy, boring too difficult).

• The procedure followed.

-The materials / apparatus.

Question 34

When using self-report methods such as interviews and questionnaires - Why would it be useful to conduct a pilot study? (Think specifically about the NATURE of questions)

Answer 34

-A pilot study could be used to identify questions that are PROBLEMATIC and remove/change them.

-Leading questions/ ambiguous complex or overly complex questions could also be removed following a pilot study.

Question 35

What can then be done as a result of a pilot study? Why are they beneficial?

Answer 35

-These problems can then be RECTIFIED (or the decision can be made to scrap the study entirely), without an entire participant sample and a set of stimulus materials being wasted.

-This can save a lot of time and money. It may also judge the likelihood of whether significant results will be likely found.

Question 36

Pilot studies are possible with most research methods, except for which TWO?

Answer 36

-Pilot studies are possible with most research methods, APART FROM NATURAL EXPERIMENTS AND CASE STUDIES.
-This is because the events/participants are SO RARE that IT WOULD BE TOO WASTEFUL TO SACRIFICE A SAMPLE FOR A PILOT STUDY.

Question 37

What are the THREE types of EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN?

Answer 37

1. Independent Groups
2. Repeated Measures
3. Matched Pairs

Question 38

What does an INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGN involve?

Answer 38

Independent Groups is when DIFFERENT participants are placed in each condition (i.e. there are TWO SEPARATE AND DIFFERENT GROUPS).

An independent groups design is USED TO ENSURE THAT RESULTS ARE NOT INFLUENCED BY ORDER EFFECTS (PPTS ONLY DO ONE CONDITION) –> This reduces the chance of DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS and is used when repeated measured designs cannot be used (i.e. when thje IV is gender).

Question 39

What are some GENERAL STRENGTHS of independent groups design?

Answer 39

1. Because each participant only takes part once, researchers only need to produce one set of stimulus materials e.g. word lists. This makes for a fairer test.
2. Order effects such as boredom, tiredness and/or learning are reduced because participants only experience one condition – this increases validity.
3. Reduces the chance of demand characteristics, as a participant only participates in one conditions, they will find it more difficult to identify the differences between conditions and, in turn, guess the aim and/or hypothesis.

Question 40

What are some GENERAL LIMITATIONS of independent groups design?

Answer 40

1. As different sets of participants are compared to each other, INDIVIDUAL differences may confound the results.
2. More participants are required than in other designs, as the sample size is halved when the participants are split. This makes the design expensive to use when a large sample size is required.

Question 41

(A03) Strength of the independent groups design? (think validity and whether the design is prone to order effects).

Answer 41

P: Independent groups as a design is highly valid.
E: There risk of order effects impacting results is greatly reduced because participants only take part in/ experience ONE CONDITION.
E: This is a strength as it means participants will not become tired/fatigued/bored.

Question 42

(A03) Strength of the independent groups design? (think validity in terms of demand characteristics)

Answer 42

P: Independent groups as an experimental design is highly valid.
E: There is a reduced chance of demand characteristics influencing results because participants only take part in one condition.
E: This is a strength of independent groups as it means participants will find it more difficult to identify the differences between conditions, and in turn, guess the aim and/or the hypothesis.
L: This therefore increases the internal validity of the design/study.

Question 43

(A03) Limitation of the independent groups design (think population validity and whether we can draw meaningful conclusions)

Answer 43

P: There are validity issues with using independent groups.
E: Population validity may affect the findings as participants only take part in ONE CONDITION.
E: Therefore, there may be variation between the groups making it less valid to draw meaningful conclusions

Question 44

(A03) Limitation of the independent groups design (think individual differences and how they might CONFOUND results?)

Answer 44

P: As different sets of participants are compared to each other, INDIVIDUAL differences (or participant variables) may confound the results.
E: If more participants with a particular characteristic are all assigned randomly to one condition, this can affect the validity of the results (i.e. results are not a true measure of the IV’s effect on the DV).

Question 45

What does a REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN involve?

Answer 45

This is where the SAME participants are USED IN BOTH CONDITIONS (i.e. each person takes part twice).

-A repeated measures design is used to REDUCE THE INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND WHERE PARTICIPANTS ARE DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN (as fewer ppts are required for a large sample size).
-A repeated measures design will introduce extraneous variables into a study, which a research must be careful to control; namely practice effects (where ppts get better at the task) and fatigue and boredom, known together as order effects.
Order effects are a significant issue with the use of repeated measures design.

Question 46

What is meant by ‘COUNTERBALANCING’ as a way of overcoming order effects in the repeated measures design?

Answer 46

One technique used to overcome order effects is ‘counterbalancing’ –> This is where the ORDER of the conditions is mixed up, so that 50% of participants experience the experimental condition followed by the control condition, whereas the other 50% of participants experience the control condition followed by the experimental condition.
(i.e. EVERYONE DOES TWO CONDITIONS BUT THE ORDER WAY ROUND IS REDUCED).

Although this does not fully eliminate order effects (as all participants are still experiencing one condition before the other), it does mean that ANY ORDER EFFECTS ARE NOW EQUAL ACROSS BOTH CONDITIONS, so their negative effect is greatly reduced.

Question 47

(A03) Strength of Repeated Measures - High validity as ppt variables are controlled for.

Answer 47

P: The repeated measures design has high VALIDITY.
E: Participant variables are controlled for because participants take part in BOTH CONDITIONS (results from the same ppts are compared).
E: Each participant therefore acts as their own control and any special features of individuals will be cancelled out, making it more meaningful to draw comparisons between the groups –> This means that individual differences do not affect the results or any subsequent conclusions).

Question 48

(A03) Strength of Repeated Measures Design - Economical

Answer 48

P: Repeated measures as a design is arguably economical.
E: This is because far fewer participants are required than in other designs, as the same sample is used twice.
E: This makes the design ECONOMICAL as there is only one set of participant expenses.

Question 49

(A03) Weakness of Repeated Measures Design - ORDER EFFECTS

Answer 49

P: There are validity issues associated with the repeated measures design.
E: Order effects are likely because participants TAKE PART IN BOTH CONDITIONS.
E: Therefore, participants may over time become bored, fatigued which reduces the validity of the results are participants may contribute less to the LATER condition, meaning order effects may impact and confound results.

Question 50

(A03) Weakness of Repeated Measures Design (think risk of demand characteristics).

Answer 50

P: There are validity issues with the repeated measures design and an increased chance of demand characteristics.
E: Demand characteristics are likely because participants TAKE PART IN BOTH CONDITIONS.
E: Therefore, they MIGHT IDENTIFY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CONDITIONS and guess the aims of the research and alter their behaviour accordingly, thus reducing the internal validity.

Question 51

What does a MATCHED PAIRS design involve?

Answer 51

Matched pairs as a design is where different participants are used in each condition (like independent groups) BUT they are matched on key variables to form pairs (to imitate repeated measures).
-A researcher will match ppts as closely as possible in terms of characteristics that are relevant to that particular study –> Ppts with similar characteristics would then form a pair. One ppt would go into condition A and the other into condition B. Ideally, this final stage should be done randomly to reduce possible bias.

-Matched pairs design is used when it is important for the researcher to CONTROL FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, but cannot use another design (e.g. repeated measures) due to concerns about order effects and/or demand characteristics.

Question 52

(A03) Strength of Matched Pairs as a experimental design –> Think how order effects are controlled.

Answer 52

P: Matched pairs design is high in validity.
E: Participants only take part in ONE of the two conditions –> This means that order effects such as boredom, tiredness AND learning are reduced because participants ONLY EXPERIENCE ONE CONDITION.
E: This makes findings more valid.

Question 53

(A03) Limitation of Matched Pairs Design –> Individual differences LARGELY controlled, but not fully.

Answer 53

P: Although participant variables/individual differences are reduced (more so than individual groups), they may not be totally eliminated.
E: This is because individual differences (the traits/characteristics by which an individual can be distinguished - e.g. personality and intelligence) still come into play when using the matched pairs design.

Question 54

(A03) Strength of Matched Pairs Design –> Reduced chance of confounding variables associated with the materials.

Answer 54

P: Because each participant only takes part once, researchers only need to produce one set of stimulus materials (e.g. word lists).
E: This reduces the chances of confounding variables associated with the materials.

Question 55

(A03) Limitation of Matched Pairs Design –> Difficult and time-consuming process.

Answer 55

P: The process of matching participants is difficult, time consuming and may be inaccurate/incomplete/ invalid.
E: This is a weakness as it is not time-effective AND participant variables are never fully controlled.

Question 56

What are the THREE common types of extraneous variable?

Answer 56

1. PARTICIPANT VARIABLES –> CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INDIVIDUAL WHICH MIGHT INFLUENCE THE OUCOME OF A STUDY (e.g. age, intelligence, personality type, socioeconomic status and gender).
2. SITUATIONAL VARIABLES –> CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENVIRONMENT that might influence the outcome of a study (e.g. general distractions and atmospherics).
3. RESEARCHER –> VARIATION IN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PSYCHOLOGIST OR RESEARCH ASSISTANTS THAT ARE CONDUCTING THE RESEARCH (e.g. gender, mood, emotion and sociability).

Question 57

What is meant by the term ‘demand characteristics’?

Answer 57

-Demand characteristics are a TYPE of extraneous variable; they are CUES WHICH CONVEY TO THE PARTICIPANT THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY.

-A participant in a research study is not a passive responder, but is actively engaged in trying to work out the AIM of the research and how they should behave.
-As participants are MOTIVATED TO FIND OUT THE PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT, they are also likely to behave in ways that they think will SUPPORT, or DISPROVE the hypothesis.
-As such, demand characteristics can change the results of the experiment if ppts change their behaviour to conform to expectations.

Question 58

Where might cues in an experiment come from? (3 suggestions)

Answer 58

-The Investigator
-Setting
-The consent form

Question 59

These cues may result in participants…

Answer 59

-Trying to PLEASE the researcher, by giving what they THINK to be the right answer.
-By trying to annoy the researcher by giving the wrong result; known as the “screw you effect”.
-Acting unnaturally because of social desirability or fear of evaluation,