Section 6 - Government Intervention Flashcards
Taxation intro
>Indirect taxes can be imposed on the purchase of goods or services.
>There are two types of indirect tax:
1. Specific taxes.
2. Ad valorem taxes.
>There are also direct taxes. These are imposed on individuals or organisations. E.g. income tax.
Specific taxes
>These are a fixed amount that’s charged per unit of a particular good, no matter what the price of that good is.
>E.g. a set amount of tax could be put on bottles of wine regardless of their price.
Specific Tax Diagram:
Ad valorem taxes
>These are charged as a proportion of the price of a good.
>E.g. a 20% tac on the price of a good would mean a £10 good = £12 and a £100 good = £120.
Ad Valorem Tax Diagram
Indirect taxes - impact
>Indirect taxes increase costs for producers so they cause the supply curve to shift to the left.
>A specific tax causes a a parallel shift of the supply curve whereas an ad valorem tax causes a non-parallel shift of the supply curve, with the biggest impact being on higher price goods.
Governments usage of tax
>Governments often put extra indirect taxes on goods that have negative externalities.
>Governments may use multiple indirect taxes on one item, e.g. in the UK cigarettes have a specific tax (called excise duty) and an ad valorem tax on their retail price.
>The aim of taxation is to internalise the externality that the good produces, i.e. make the producer and/or consumer of the product cover the cost of its externalities.
>The taxes make revenue for the government which can be used to offset the effects of externalities - e.g. the revenue generated from a tax on alcohol could be used to pay for additional police time needed to deal with alcohol related crime.
>Another example of a specific tax used in the UK is landfill tax. The tax aims to reduce the impacts of environmental market failure linked to landfill/
How does landfill tax reduce impacts of environmental market failure?
>Local authorities/firms that dispose of waste at landfill sites are charged an environmental tax.
>The tax is set at an amount which attempts to reflect the full social costs of using landfill.
>Tax should encourage recycling reducing negative externalities.
>Although could lead to fly-tipping.
Amount of tax paid
>The amount of tax passed on to the consumer will depend on the price elasticity of demand.
>If demand for a good is price inelastic, most or all of the extra cost is likely to be passed on to the consumer.
>If the demand for a good is price elastic then the producer is much more likely to take on most of the extra cost.
Advantages of tax to reduce market failure
>The cost of the negative externalities is internalised in the price of the good - this may reduce demand for the good and the level of its production, reducing the effects of the negative externalities.
>If demand isn’t reduced there’s still the benefit that the revenue gained from the tax can be used by the government to offset the externalities. Tax hypothecation.
Disadvantages of tax to reduce market failure
>It can be difficult to put a monetary value on the ‘cost’ of the negative externalities.
>For goods where demand is price inelastic, the demand isn’t reduced by the extra cost of the tax.
>Indirect taxes usually increase the cost of production, which reduces a product’s international competitiveness.
>Firms may choose to relocate and sell their goods abroad to avoid the indirect taxation. This would remove their contributions to the economy, such as the payment of tax and the provision of employment.
>The money raised by taxes on demerit goods might not be spent on reducing the effect of their externalities.
Subsidies
>The government may pay subsidies with the aim of encouraging the production and consumption of goods and services with positive externalities.
>A subsidy increases the supply of a good/service, so the supply curve shifts to the right.
>Subsidies can be used to encourage the purchase and use of goods/services which reduce negative externalities. E.g. public services to reduce pollution, or as support for firms to help them become more internationally competitive.
>Both consumers and producers can gain from a subsidy.
>The proportion of the subsidy producers and consumers benefit from depends on the elasticity of the supply and demand curves.
>Sometimes subsidies might be given directly to consumers instead.
Subsidies - advantages
>The benefit of goods with positive externalities is internalised, i.e. the cost of these externalities is covered by the government subsidy, so the price of the goods is reduced from what it would be in the absence of a subsidy.
>Subsidies can change preferences - producers will supply goods with positive externalities and consumers will consume them and receive the benefits from them. Also, making a merit good cheaper by the presence of a subsidy makes it more affordable and increases demand for it.
>The positive externalities are still present.
>Subsidies can support a domestic industry until it grows to the point that it can exploit economies of scale and become internationally competitive (Although this could encourage inefficiency).
Subsidies - disadvantages
>It can be difficult to put a monetary value on the ‘benefit’ of positive externalities.
>Any subsidy has an opportunity cost.
>Subsidies may make producers inefficient and reliant on subsidies. The subsidy means that producers have less incentive to reduce costs or innovate.
>The effectiveness of subsidies depends on the elasticity of demand - subsidies wouldn’t significantly increase demand for inelastic goods.
>The subsidised goods and services may not be as good as those they’re aiming to replace. E.g imported goods may be better quality than the domestically produced alternatives a subsidy is promoting.
Subsidy Diagram
Maximum price
>A maximum price (or price ceiling) may be set to increase consumption of a merit good or to make a necessity more affordable. E.g. max rent to keep cost of renting a property affordable.
>If a maximum price is set above the market equilibrium price, it will have no impact.
>If it’s set below the market equilibrium, it will lead to excess demand and a shortage in supply. The excess demand can’t be cleared by market forces, so to prevent shortages the product needs to be rationed out, e.g. by ballot.
>A good’s price elasticity of supply and price elasticity of demand will have a big effect on the amount of excess demand.
Maximum Price Diagram
Minimum price
>Minimum prices (or price floors) are often set to make sure that suppliers get a fair price. The EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) involves the use of a guaranteed minimum price for many agricultural products.
>If a minimum price is set below the market equilibrium, it will have no impact.
>If it’s set above the market equilibrium price, it will reduce demand and increase supply leading to an excess supply.
>To make a minimum price for a good work the government must purchase the excess supply at the guaranteed minimum price. The goods bought by the government will either be stockpiled or destroyed.
>Gov expenditure would then be AQ1Q2B.
>A good’s PES and PED will have a big effect on the amount of excess supply.
>Minimum prices are a good way to restrict monopsony power as they will provide a guaranteed price for suppliers and ensure that a firm that’s a monopsony buyer can’t keep negotiating lower and lower prices.
Minimum Price Diagram
Maximum price - advantages
>Max prices can help to increase fairness, by allowing more people the ability to purchase certain goods and services.
>They can also be used to prevent monopolies from exploiting consumers.
Maximum price - disadvantages
>Since demand will be higher than supply, some people who want to buy the product aren’t able to.
>Governments may need to introduce a rationing scheme to allocate the good, e.g. through a ballot.
>Excess demand can lead to the creation of a black market for a good.
Minimum price - advantage
>Producers have a guaranteed minimum income which will encourage investment.
>Stockpiles can be used when supply is reduced (e.g. due to bad weather) or as overseas aid.
Minimum price - disadvantage
>Consumers will be paying a higher price than the market equilibrium.
>Resources used to produce the excess supply could be used elsewhere - there’s an inefficient allocation of resources.
>Government spending on a minimum price scheme could be used in other areas - schemes may have a high opportunity cost.
>Destroying excess goods is a waste of resources.
>Depends on the magnitude of the minimum price above the free market price.
State provision
>Governments directly provide some goods and services.
>Governments use tax revenue to pay for certain goods and services so that they’re free, or largely free, when consumed. In UK = NHS, state education, waste disposal, fire and police services.
>Public goods, such as defence and street lighting, are also provided by the state.
>State provision can come directly from the government, e.g. state schools and the army.
> Also, governments can purchase the good or service from the private sector and provide it to the public for free, e.g. in some areas community health services are purchased from private companies and then provided free to NHS patients.
What can state provision do?
>State provision is a way to overcome market failure.
>Governments might provide certain things to increase the consumption of merit goods, such as education and health.
>Free provision of services can help to reduce inequalities in access, e.g. due to differences in wealth.
>It can also redistribute income - most of the money to pay for the services comes from taxing wealthier citizens.
>The level of state provision is a value judgement made by the government - it’s up to the government to decide the amount of a good/service that they provide. This decision is likely to be based on how important for society they think it is that they provide the good/service.
State provision - disadvantages
- State provision may mean there’s less incentive to operate efficiently due to the absence of the price mechanism.
- State provision may fail to respond to consumer demands, as it lacks the motive of profit to determine what’s supplied.
- The opportunity cost of state provision of a good or service is that other goods or services can’t be supplied.
- State provision can reduce individuals’ self-reliance - they know the good or service is there for them if they need it.
Health care
>Health care is a merit good that’s sometimes provided by governments.
>The government funds the NHS so that society benefits from the positive externalities of health care. E.g. can contribute to a happier, healthier population and reduce number of sick days.
>However, there are drawbacks to the state provision of health care by the NHS.