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Biology > Section 4 - Genetic information, variation and relationships between organisms: 10. Biodiversity > Flashcards

Section 4 - Genetic information, variation and relationships between organisms: 10. Biodiversity Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a species

A

A group of organisms capable of breeding to produce fertile off-spring

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2
Q

What is the binomial system for naming species

A
  • Generic name (first) = Genus
  • Specific name (second) = Species
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3
Q

What is classification

A

The organisation of organisms into groups

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4
Q

What is taxonomy

A

The theory and practice of biological classification, studying taxons and their hierarchal order

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5
Q

What are the two type of classification

A
  • Artificial classification
  • Phylogenetic classification
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6
Q

What is Artificial classification

A

Grouping organisms based on their features and analogue characteristics, useful at the time (No evolutionary links)

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7
Q

What is Phylogenetic classification

A

Hierarchal Grouping based on evolutionary links and relationships, where groups share features derived from common ancestors

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8
Q

What is the order of the Linnaean taxonomy system

A

Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

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9
Q

What is a taxon

A

A group withing taxonomic classification

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10
Q

What is Phylogeny

A

The evolutionary relationships between organisms

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11
Q

What are the 3 domains

A
  • Bacteria
  • Archaea
  • Eukarya
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12
Q

What are bacteria

A

Group of single celled prokaryotes

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13
Q

What are the common features of Bacteria

A
  • No membrane bound organelles
  • Unicellular, though can form clusters
  • 70s Ribosomes (smaller than Eukaryotes)
  • Cell walls made of murein
  • Single loop of DNA with no histones
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14
Q

What are archaea

A

Group of single celled prokaryotes (originally classified as bacteria)

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15
Q

What are the common features of Archaea

A
  • Genes and protein synthesis similar to eukaryotes
  • Membranes contain fatty acid chains joined to glycerol by ether linkages
  • No murein in cell walls
  • More complex RNA polymerase than bacteria
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16
Q

What are Eukarya

A

Group of organisms made of one or more eukaryotic cells

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17
Q

What are the common features of Eukarya

A
  • Membrane bound organelles
  • Membranes contain fatty acids joined to glycerol by ester linkages
  • Not all have cell walls, but those with don’t contain murein
  • 80s Ribosomes (larger than bacteria and archaea
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18
Q

What 4 kingdoms do Eukarya divide into

A
  • Protoctista
  • Fungi
  • Plantae
  • Animalia
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19
Q

What is the role of courtship behaviour

A
  • Allows individuals to recognise members of the same species (same across species, with a typical chain of action)
  • Allows individuals to see if a mate is capable of breeding
  • Forms pair bonds
  • Synchronises mating
  • Allows individuals to become able to breed
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20
Q

What is biodiversity

A

A measure of the number and type of organisms in an ecosystem

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21
Q

What is species diversity

A

A measure of how many species are present in an area, and how many individuals of each species there are
(measured with species diversity index)

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22
Q

What is genetic diversity

A

A measure of the total number of alleles in a population, altered by natural selection and linked to allele frequency/genetic drift

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23
Q

What is genetic drift

A

A change in the gene pool of a population that occurs purely by chance (not due to advantageous characteristics)

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24
Q

What is the bottle neck effect

A

Sever genetic drift when the population size is drastically reduced, resulting in less genetic diversity (eg. natural disaster/extinction event)

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25
Q

What is the founder effect

A

Loss of genetic variation when a new population is established from a larger one (smaller pop. size)

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26
Q

What is habitat diversity

A

A measure of how many different habitats are present in an area

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27
Q

What is a habitat

A

The range of physical, biological and environmental factors in which a species can survive (i.e. where a population of a species lives)

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28
Q

What is Ecosystem diversity

A

The variety of different habitats, communities and ecological processes within an area

Links to the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors, including the movement of energy, nutrients and species

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29
Q

What is Endemism

A

Species unique to a particular area/habitat (native) that is geographically discrete

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30
Q

What is Cosmopolitan distribution

A

When a species is vastly distributed across many regions/most of the world
(opposite of endemism)

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31
Q

What are biodiversity hotspots

A

Regions with a high level of biodiversity, but is threatened with destruction

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32
Q

What is species richness

A

The number of different types of species in a particular area
(doesn’t account for the number of individuals in each species)

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33
Q

What is species evenness

A

A comparison of the size of populations (No. of individuals) of different species in an area

34
Q

Why is biodiversity important

A
  • Ecosystems rely on the interdependence of organisms to maintain stability
  • Relied upon for the survival of all organisms (Humans!)
  • Pollination for food production
  • Trees/plants slow water to allow for absorption
  • Agriculture relies on insects/native species
  • Medicines rely on natural resources
    etc…
35
Q

What is Simpson’s diversity index

A

D = N(N-1) / Σn(n-1)

36
Q

What information is needed to calculate Simpson’s diversity index

A

N = Total number of organisms of all species
n = Total number of organisms of each individual species

37
Q

What are the human activities that impact Biodiversity

A
  • Removal of Hedgerows
  • Creating monocultures
  • Filling in ponds, marshes and wetlands
  • Overgrazing of land
  • Pesticide/inorganic fertiliser use
  • Effluent escaping from silage stores (into local water)
  • Absence of crop rotation (lack of intercropping)
38
Q

Why are Hedgerows removed by humans

A

Removed to increase land area for agricutre and farming

39
Q

Why are natural hedge rows important for Biodiversity

A
  • Provide resources for animals, birds and insects, such as food and shelter
  • Dead wood/leaf litter provides habitats for invertebrates, and recycles nutrients to the soil
  • Contain many native species/increase species diversity
  • Act as a physical barrier to water, increasing absorption into the soil
40
Q

How can the impact of removing hedgerows be reduced

A
  • Leave native hedge rows to protect the endemic species
  • Plant hedge rows as boarders to increase biodiversity in the area
41
Q

What is a monoculture

A

The mass production of one type of food, as it is easier to grow, maintain and harvest

42
Q

How do monocultures impact biodiversity

A
  • Reduction in biodiversity, due to only one species being grown
  • Impacts insects and local wildlife that relies on the interdependence within the ecosystem
  • Less variety of nutrients being recycled to the soil for fertile land
  • The Large farms of monocultures increase the CO2 emissions, due to production of fertilisers, machinery, etc.
43
Q

How can the impact of monocultures be reduced

A
  • Grow a polyculture system, with a variety of species, rather than just one (intercropping)
  • Rotate crops, so a different species is grown after a period of time
44
Q

Why are pond, marshes and wetlands filled in by humans

A

Increase land area for agriculture, farming and urban development

45
Q

Why are ponds, marshes and wetlands important for biodiversity

A
  • Support fresh water wildlife
  • Wetlands store carbon, and soak in water to slow the flow (prevent floods/water level rise downstream)
  • Marshlands can filter out pollutants
  • Act as breeding grounds
  • provide resources for the survival of many species
46
Q

How can the impact of filling ponds, marches and wetlands be reduced

A
  • Leave/protect current wetland ecosystems to reduce the loss of biodiversity
47
Q

What is overgrazing

A

When plants are exposed to intensive grazing over a long period of time either due to poorly managed agriculture (eg. game reserves), or livestock for farming

48
Q

What is the impact of overgrazing on biodiversity

A
  • Prevents the regeneration of woodlands and other ecosystems, damaging the biodiversity of these areas
  • Leads to weakened soil integrity, leading to nutrient depletion which causes poor crop growth
  • Decrease plant leaf surface area, reducing photosynthesis, so less energy (therefore grow poor root system)
49
Q

How can the impacts of overgrazing be reduced

A
  • Grow plants (especially endangered) in an area with less animals/live stock, to reduce the chance of overgrazing
  • Rotate where the livestock ae kept to allow the plants to have a chance to grow back/re-establish
50
Q

Why are pesticides and inorganic fertilisers used

A

Used to control pests, weeds and disease, and the use of synthetic chemicals to aid plant growth (Fertilisers include N, P and K)

51
Q

What is the impact of pesticides and inorganic fertilisers on biodiversity

A
  • Contaminate soil and local water, impacting local wildlife
  • Kills pollinators, reducing crop yield and damaging the interdependence within the ecosystems
  • Fertilisers cause fast growing plants to dominate, impacting natural selection
52
Q

How can the impacts of pesticides and inorganic fertilisers be reduced

A
  • Using less (finding alternatives:)
  • Genetically modified crops that are resistant to pests, disease, etc.
  • Crop rotations to increase soil fertility and reduce the need for fertilisers
  • Use biological controls to remove pests (eg. Introduce ladybirds, to reduce aphid population)
53
Q

What is silage and why is it important

A

Fermented green crops, increasing it’s nutrients, to be fed to cattle, sheep and other livestock

54
Q

What is the impact of effluent escape from silage stores on biodiversity

A

Causes Eutrophication:
- Silage in water stores increases the nutrient content
- Increased activity of decomposers
- Oxygen is used up, so wildlife dies
- Increased plant growth (algae blooms) blocks light and uses up resources, harming the biodiversity

55
Q

How can the impacts of effluent escape from silage stores be reduced

A
  • Only cut the crop when it is dry and has wilted for 24hrs, to reduce effluent silage
  • Have effluent channels that are regularly inspected, to capture and silage
  • Store silage in bales to reduce effluent silage
  • Store in secure containers, at least 20m from a waterbody
  • Have frequent water quality assessments to ensure silage isn’t ending up there, and so it can be dealt with faster if it is.
56
Q

What is intercropping

A

When you grow two or more crops with different nutrient requirements in the same field

57
Q

What is crop rotaion

A

Planting different crops sequentially on the same plot of land

58
Q

What is the impact of no intercropping/crop rotations on biodiversity

A
  • Leads to the depletion of nutrients
  • Increases the impact of crop specific diseases/pests
  • Reduces the biodiversity, as less species are present, damaging the interdependence relied upon by the local ecosystem
59
Q

What are the benefits of intercropping

A
  • Saves space
  • Reduces resources needed
  • Increases crop yield (more profit)
  • Increase the biodiversity of the field
60
Q

What are the benefits of crop rotations

A
  • Reduces a depletion of nutrients, as different crops have different requirements
  • Reduces the impact of crop specific pests/diseases
61
Q

What are the 4 ways genetic diversity between organisms/species can be compared

A
  • Observable characteristics
  • DNA base sequence
  • mRNA base sequence
  • Amino acid sequence in proteins (Immunological comparisons)
62
Q

How can genetic diversity be compared based on observable characteristics

A
  • Phenotype determined by genes, so suggests genetic diversity
  • Not reliable, as polygenetic characteristics can be altered by environmental factors (Differences may not mean no evolutionary links)
63
Q

How can genetic diversity be compared based on the DNA base sequence

A
  • DNA sequencing and computer analysis allows for DNA sequences to be compared
  • More similar DNA suggests closer evolutionary links
64
Q

How can genetic diversity be compared based on the mRNA base sequence

A
  • mRNA is coded for by DNA, so similarities/differences reflect those in the genome
65
Q

How can genetic diversity be compared based on the amino acid sequence in proteins

A
  • Amino acids are coded for by mRNA, which is determined by DNA, so similar protein structures suggest closely related species (evolutionary links)
66
Q

What is the principle that allows immunological comparisons to be made

A

Antibodies of one species will respond to specific antigens on the proteins in the blood serum of another species

67
Q

What is the process to carry out immunological comparisons

A
  • Inject human blood serum containing albumin (protein) into a rabbit
  • Rabbit produces antibodies against human albumin
  • ‘Anti-human albumin’ are collected and purified
  • Antibodies are added to the blood serum of other species
  • A precipitate forms if there is an immune response, showing that human-like proteins are present

∴ Species with more precipitate = more closely related to humans

68
Q

What is interspecific variation

A

If one species differs from another

69
Q

What is intraspecific variation

A

If members of the same species differ from each other

70
Q

What is random sampling

A

Taking measurements from a randomly selected group of the population, which should represent the whole population

71
Q

What factors can effect random sampling

A
  • Sampling bias: Individuals may be favoured for selection, effecting how representative the sample is
  • Chance: The random nature of the sample means it many not be representative just due to chance (no bias)
72
Q

What is a normal distribution curve

A

Bell curve that shows the distribution of continuous traits (eg. Weight)

73
Q

What is the arithmetic mean (x̄)

A

Sum of the samples / number of items
(max height of the normal distribution curve - not if skewed)

74
Q

What is the mode

A

The most common value
(max height of normal distribution curve - even if skewed)

75
Q

What is the median

A

Middle of the set of data
(max height of the normal distribution curve - not if skewed)

76
Q

What is standard deviation

A

Mean average of the distance of the values from the mean

77
Q

How do you calculate standard deviation

A

SD = √ Σ(x-x̄)^2 / n-1

78
Q

What proportion of the data lies within ±1SD from the mean

A

68%

79
Q

What proportion of the data lies within ±1.96SD (~2)

A

95%

80
Q

What is standard error

A

The expected standard error of the mean

81
Q

How can you calculate standard error

A

SE = SD / √n

82
Q

In what proportion of the data could the mean lie with ±1.96SE

A

95%

Biology (21 decks)

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