Section 2 Flashcards
Hiring
-Hierarchical nature of policing makes hiring key
~Recruit today could be chief in 20 years
~Suprevisors chosen from lower ranks
-Good recruits important to
~Social, legal, and political contexts
~Social contract requirements
Early Recruitment
-Began in the 1840s (NYPD 1844)
-During the Political Era
~Corrupt, unfair
~No requirements
~Little to no training needed
-Pendleton Act 1883
~Federal government positions awarded on merit
~Required exams to see if qualified for jobs
~Could not be fired for political reasons
~Federal act, but states soon followed
*NO LONGER POLITICAL!
Historically
-Policing seen as “way out” = professional success
-Today still similar
~Recruits are usually middle class (“Blue Collar”/ working class)
~KEY COMPONENT = job security (salary, benefits, promotion, etc.)
-Recruitment standards
Modern Recruitments
-Minimum Qualifications (RPD)
~Based on Nevada Administrative Code Section 289.110
~No person may be appointed to perform the duties of a peace officer unless he/she
*Has undergone a complete and documented investigation of his/her background, which verifies that he/she has good moral character and meets the minimum standards established by the Commission of Peace Officers’ Standards and Training (POST)
*IS a citizen of the United States
*Is at least 21 years of age at the time of his/her appointment
*Has successfully completed the 12th grade or has been certified by an appropriate authority as having an equivalent education; and
*Has undergone a medical examination performed by a licensed physician who confirms in writing that no physical condition exists that would affect his/her performance of the duties of a peace officer. The employing agency shall inform the examining physician of the specific functions required by the position to be filled
~A person may not be appointed to perform the duties if he/she has:
*Been convicted of a felony in this State or of any offense which would be a felony if committed in this State
*Been convicted of an offense involving moral turpitude to the unlawful use, sale, or possession of a controlled substance; or
*A documented history of physical violence
Recruitment Concerns
-Women?
-Minorities?
-LGBT community?
Recruitment Concerns
-Education
~Pros
*College produces “well-rounded” individuals
*Complexity of society requires complex skills
*Better communication and writing skills
*Promotion, Promotion, Promotion
**Education may not be required, but promoted are educated
~Cons
*College requirements can discriminate
*Policing is learned on the streets
*No evidence education makes better officers
*College education leads to frustration with the job
*82% required HS diploma
*1% require a college degree
*1% require some college credits
Recruitment Methods
-Career Fairs
-Nationwide Recruiting
-Social Media
-Targeted Marketing
-Partner with minority police officer associations
-Engage early and often
Hurdle Process
-Meeting minimum qualifications is only the first step of the recruitment process
~Tests and background checks
~Designed to remove poor candidates
~3-6 months + at times
~Problem
*Good candidates pass on the job
Written and Physical Exams
-Written exam
~Reading comprehension/writing.math/grammar/analytical skill
~70% or above
~Research unsure about impact on careers
-Physical exam
~Pass or Fail
~Varies by department
Personal Interview
-Used by 99% of all agencies
-Usually appear individually before the board(s)
-Assess aspects not measurable on tests
-Situational questions
Background Checks
-Background Includes
~Prior behaviors (drug use/criminal records)
~Family and friends
~Social media
~Tattoos
~Employment issues
~Finances and credit history (97% of departments do credit history checks)
~References
~And much more…
Polygraph Exam
-Detects lies and deception
-Base and control questions
-Records many physiological indicators
*Blood pressure, pulse, respiration, skin conductivity
**Voice Stress Analysis
Psychological Screening
-Psychological tests
~Suitable and stable for police work?
~Emotional stability, aggressiveness, personality disorders, etc.
Medical and Drug Screening
-Test physical ability to perform duties of the job
-Varies by department
-Hearing tests
-Physical exam
Finally…
-Offical job offer
-Prep for academy
~Orientation
~Physical fitness
~Uniforms
~Equipment (holster, guns, clips, magazines, etc.)
The Police Academy
-P.O.S.T
~Peace Officer Standards and Training
-648 across the US
-18-20 per class
-86% completion rate
Peace Officers
-CATEGORY 1
~Typical Nevada police officer
~Arrest powers, carry firearms, and conduct vehicle pursuits
~Unrestricted duties
-CATEGORY 2
~Bailiffs, investigators, probation and parole, school police
~Essentially same responsibilities and powers as Category 1
-CATEGORY 3
~Limited to correctional sevices
Training Hours
-Average of 760 hours of basic training
~Nevada minimus
*Cat 1 480 hours, Cat 2 200 hours, Cat 3 160 hours
-Other careers
~Doctors
*4 years
~Attorneys
*3 years
~Barbers
*1500 hours
Training Topics
-Operations 172 hours
-Weapons/Self-Defense 123 hours
-Legal 52 hours
-Self-Improvement 75 hours
-Community policing 27 hours
-Special Topics 34 hours
-Total
~483 hours
Firearms Training
-12.4% of training (60 hours)
-Public opinion
~3 in 10 believe police officers fire their weapons a few times a year
~83% estimate typical officer has been fired at least once in their career
-In actuality
~Only 27% have EVER fired their service weapon (National Police Research Platform, 2016)
Issues with Academies
-Content
~Little communications, ethics, human relations, etc.
~Poor instructors
~Old training facilities/ poor infrastructure
-Delivery
~Paramilitary structure
*“Us v. them” mentality (Skolnick and Fyfe 1993)
*“Cops as soldiers” mentality frustrating
-Danger
~Role overstressed (Kappeler et al., 1998)
~Recruits misinformed about police dangers
*90% of academy time deals with “danger-related skills”
-Too much focus on:
~Firearms training
~Dangerous calls
~”Officer Survival”
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017
-Rates per 100,000 (job-related deaths)
~Fisherman
~Loggers
~Airplane Pilots
~Roofers
~Recyclable material collectors
~Iron and steel workers
~Truck and sales drivers
~Farmers
~Grounds maintenance workers
~Electrical power-line installer and repair
Results?
-Militarization of police
-Negative social impact on community
Post Academy Training
-FTO
~Field Training Officer
*San Jose, CA (1972)
*Probation
*Assigned to older/ veteran officer
*Proven to reduce civil liability
*Risk of passing on “old” techniques
-PTO
~Police Training Officer
*Reno, NV (1999)
*FTO + additional requirements
-Formal education model
~ Agency-wide approach to problems
~Target “core competencies” of policing
In-Service Training
-Academy and FTO/PTO are only beginning
-Change always occurring
-Recertify, refresh, and new
-Most states required minimum per year
Police Personality
-Skolnick
~Police culture
*Danger
*Authority
*Efficiency
-Balance between fellow officers and community
-Culture extends into personal lives
-Police cynicism
~Constantly exposed to people at their worst
-Develos throughout their career
-View of Humanity
~Can be distorted/cynical
~Community connections can help alleviate this
Creates callous officers
Police Personality Types
-Broderick
-Four Types
~Enforcers
*Keep beat clean, make good arrests, help good people
~Idealists
*Duty to keep peace and protect citizens from criminals
~Realists
*Focus on the process with little emphasis on social order
~Optimists
*See job as people-oriented not crime oriented
What Makes a Good Cop?
-Easy to see the bad ones
-Good explained by William Muir
~Passion
*Willingness to use force for the greater good
~Perspective
*See good and bad
**Enforcer
*Recipocator
**Avoider
-How do you measure?
~Dennis Nowicki
-Foundation = honesty, ethics, and moral character
-Additional qualities imperative for entry-level police officers
~Enthusiasm
~Good Communication skills
~Good judgment
~Sense of humor
~Creativity
~Self-motivation
~Knowing job and systems
~Ego
~Courage
~Tenacity
~Thirst for knowledge
Police Roles
-Role misunderstood by both police and public
-Don’t just enforce the law
-Many different actors define the role
~Private citizens
~Legislative bodies
~Courts
~Executives
~Police
-Crime Fighter Image
~Not accurate view of contemporary policing
~20% of day devoted to crime fighting
~Harmful to public can police
*Unrealistic expectations
*Police success not like TV
Role Conflicts
-Every police officer is different
-Every call/encounter is different
~Domestic Calls
-Recruitment
-Efficiency, effectiveness, and promotion
-Realistic Image
Police Functions
-Enforcing the law
-Performing services
-Preventing crime
-Protecting innocent
-James Q. Wilson
~Maintaing order (peacekeeping)
~Enforce the law
Wilson’s Policing Styles
-Watchman
~Focus on outcomes, can cut corners
~Morally justified
~”Dirty Harry” type of cop
~HIgh discretion
-Legalistic
~Little discretion, “by the book”
~State police fit here
~Impartial, fair but server
-Service
~Focus on need, not procedures
~Refers often to social agencies
~Uses non-traditional policing techniques
~Proble solving
~High discretion
Which Prevails?
-Personality, role, function, and style…
~Differ by time and place
~Depends on agency, political climate, problems of the day, etc.
~Depends on goals
Nature of Patrol
-Backbone of policing
-James Q. Wilson
~”Gatekeepers” of CJ System
-Police department is unique because
~HIerarchy and discretion
~Patrol officer’s responsibility
*“Stress level bureaucrats”
-Patrol had training functions
~Where police learn their trade
~Where police learn “police personality”
~Where monitoring police subculture is important
*Pairing old officers with new = good or corruption?
-Leonard Fuld 1910
~”A policemen’s life is a lazy life in as much as his time is spent doing nothing.”
Functions of Patrol
-Deter crime and apprehend criminals
-Maintain a public sense of security
~Not just crime, but the perception of crime
-Help people in need 24 hours per day
-When there is inactivity…
~ Police-related activities
~Private places
~”What if” exercises
~Memorizing and refreshing on codes, NRS, roads, etc.
Standard Model Goals
-Increase the size of departments
-Random patrols (the typical way we meet police- randomly)
-Rapid Response time to calls
-Carry out major investigations (minor offenses handled administratively)
-Focus on INTENSIVE ENFORCEMENT and ARREST POLICIES (although much of it is random- due to #2)
-National Academy of Sciences
~”The above strategies are not effective for controlling crime or disorder and reducing fear of crime.”
How many officers?
-What is the impact of increased police?
-Cities with higher ratios have decreased crime rates?
~Cities with high ratios have high crime problems
*Problem
**Increases in police tend to follow increases in crime
*More often, the bigger police departments have poor organizations
-Reduced efficiency = reduced crime prevention
-KEY to proper number not always police-population ratio
Patrol Costs
-Annual Salary:
~$56,000
-Fringe Benefits
~.30% ($16,000)
-Total pay
~$72,800
-3 shifts = 8 hours each = 24 hours
-$$/hours x 8 hours = $$ X number of patrol officers per day = $$$$
-Consider OT, special pay, special events, training, patrol cars (gas, tires, etc.), equipment
-2018
~$64 million budget (patrol approx. 63% = $40.3 million/360 = $112,000 per day)
Patrol
-Backbone of policing
~Represents not only department but the government
~Most public contact
~High cost (financially, influential, etc.)
-So, how do we ensure it is done more effectively?
~RESEARCH
Directed Patrol Goals
-Focused scientific approach to crime and patrol
-Problem driven approach
-Focus on problem locations
-Use alternate patrol methods
KEY RESEARCH Study
-Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment
~Kansas City, MO 1973
~Tested benefits of added police presence
Patrols varied within 15 police beats
Categorized into 5 beats/3 groups
**Proactive:
**Patrol intensified 2-3 times normal
**Reactive:
**No random patrol, only entered in response to calls
**Control:
*** Normal random routine patrol
-Findings
~Random patrol does not reduce crime or fears
*Fire Truck Analogy
-Kansas City Response Time Study
~Kansas City, MO 1977
~Test the following
*Relationship between response time and crime reduction
*One versus two-officer patrol cars
*Arrest during a routine patrol
-Findings
~Faster police response does not lower crime
~One-officer patrol cars are just as safe
KEY RESEARCH studies
-Patrol Productivity
-1975
~New Haven, CT
*Computer data and crime locations
*Deterrent runs (D-runs)
*Findings:
**Displace crime
~Wilmington, DE
*Split-force program
*Findings:
**Police productivity increased 20%; crime down 18%
KEY RESEARCH studies
-Foot Patrols
-1977 to 1979
~New Jersey Cities
*Crime levels were not impacted, but residents felt safer
-1985
~Flint, MI
*Officers had higher job satisfaction and felt safer than motor officers
-2009
~Philadelphia, PA
*Patrolled as pairs in high-crime areas
*After three months, violent crime decreased by 23%
KEY RESEARCH studies
-Directed Patrol and Hot Spots
-Kansas City Gun Experiment
~Kansas City, MO 1992-1993
*Aimed to reduce gun violence
*Extra patrol in gun crime “hot spots”
-Findings:
~Increase in gun seizure, decline in gun crime (49%), less homicides, but no difference in drv=ive-by shootings or other crimes
-Directed patrol 3x more effective than random patrol
KEY RESEARCH Studies
-Results depend on the community
-Findings may differ somewhere else or change over time
-But
~Show how old police methods should be viewed cautiously
~*Research, Research, Research
Patrol Types
-Automobile Patrol 84%
~One or two officer patrol?
-Motorcycle Patrol 5%
~Large coverage, quick response
-Foot Patrol 4%
~Beat concept, increased social contact, corruption?
-Hybrid 5%
~Bicycles, motorized scooters, Segways, etc.
-Other 2%
~Horse patrol, air, marine, water, snowmobile, “vertical patrol” in high rise, etc.
Patrol Types
-Reactive
-Traditional
-High response to calls for service (911)
-Calls control police activity
-Proven ineffective
-Costly
-Little community involvement
-“General Patrol”
Patrol Types
-Proactive
-Understand the root of the problem
-Control crime before it happens
-Prevention
-Emphasis on analysis/not force
-Difficult to implement in older departments
-Essential to community policing
-Police activity controls calls
-“Direct Patrol”
Shift and Beat Assignments
-Directly impacts patrol
-Shift
~Day (8 am-4 pm)
*Usually, most seniority work
*Greatest contact with people
~Swing or Evening (4 pm-12 am)
*Arrests more frequent than day shift
~Night or Graveyard (12 am-8 am)
*Greatest impact on officers
*“night people”
-Beat
~Loaction
*Residential areas, “bad areas,” downtown, college areas, etc.
Considerations
-Area of each beat
-Allowed response speed
-Call rates by time of day and type of calls
-Immigration, minority, and homeless population
*Crime is not evenly distributed
-Redrawing beat boundaries
-Patrol assignments
Dangers of Patrol
-Uncertainty of the public
~People may want to harm you
~”Ferguson Effect”
~Sucide by cop
-Traffic accidents
Future of Patrol
-Bilingual officers
-Technology
~Body cameras
~Facial recognition
~GPS applications
~Drones
-Use of civilians/seniors/voluntees
-Next Generation 911
What is Discretion?
-Definition
~Acting on one’s own authority and judgment
~The freedom to decide what should be done in a particular situation
-Two decisions when police observe something suspicious or illegal in nature
~Whether to intervene
~How to intervene
Necessity
-Discretion is now seen as a necessity in policing
~But sometimes, no discretion is allowed
-“Exercise of discretion is not a problem, the abuse of discretion is”
The Need For Police Discretion
-Reasons for Discretion
~Myth of ‘Full enforcement”
*Laws do not cover every situation
*Some laws are too narrow/ unforgiving
*Police work is too varied and unexpected
Considerations
-The Law
~Seriousness of the offense
~Officer’s attitude
~Citizen’s attitude
~Other
Discretion Variation
-Officer Variables
~Shift
~Criem Type
~Parter or not?
~Same race/ gender/ SES as suspect?
~Type of police (watchman/ Legalisitc/ Service)
-Offender Variable
~Adult or minor
~Ethnic/Cultural similarity to the police officer
~Suspect Demeanor
~Class/ Income
~Gender
-Situation Variables
~Day/ Night
~Severity of Crime
~Weapons
~Police or Citizen Initiation?
~Externals
*Other officers, media, public, etc.
-System Variables
~Law
*DUI, DV, etc.
~Time of day
*End of shift?
~Action = income/ overtime?
~Traing/ Ethical Nature
~Extent of available social services
*Shelters, animal control, soup kitchens
~Extent to which the department monitors behaviors
*Quotas, reports, etc.
-770 different combinations of activities in a single traffic stop
Types of Discretion
-Selective Enforcement
~High Discretion
~Can Appear Discriminatory?
~Treat each situation on its own merits
~Officers remain the final decision maker or
~Officer can treat each case individually (flexibility)
~Can lead to unequal treatment (selective enforcement)
~Officers can pick and choose how and why they apply the law
-Zero Tolerance
~No/little Discretion
~No Officer Autonomy
~Equal Treatment
~Unfair Application
~Officers are not tempted to play “favorites”
~Reduces liability problems
~Less decision-making stress on the officer
~Can lead to harsh enforcement
~Officers can alienate community
Types of Police and Discretion
-Watchman Style
-High Discretion (Unstructured and Uncontrolled)
~Strict/ rough
~Morally justified
~But can solve crime problems/ no tolerance
Types of Police and Discretion
-Legalistic Style
-Low Discretion (Controlled and Structured)
~ The letter of the law
~High numbers
~Formal, by the books
~Consistent, but lots of police presence in daily life
Types of Police and Discretion
-Legalistic Style
-Low Discretion (Controlled and Structured)
~ The letter of the law
~High numbers
~Formal, by the books
~Consistent, but lots of police presence in daily life
Types of Police and Discretion
-Service Style
-High Discretion (Unstructured and Controlled)
~Get to root of problems
~Diversion of offenders to other agencies instead of jail
~Police = extension of social services
~Community justice - input of community
Discretion and Police Functions
-Functions of Police
~Law Enforcement (10%)
~Order Maintenance (52%)
~Social Services (38%)
-Discretion
~Affects how these functions are achieved by these types of police officers
-Example
~Force on Patrol
*<1% of encounters
*Demeanor
*Organizational culture
*Training
*Ethical Nature
**Amount of force used
Pros and Cons
-Full Discretion
~Good
*Officers remain the final decision-makers
*Officer can treat each case individually (flexibility)
~Bad
*Can lead to unequal treatment (selective enforcement)
*Officers can pick and choose how and why they apply the law
-No Discretion (Zero Tolerance)
~Good
*Officers are not tempted to play “favorites”
*Reduces liability problems
*Less decision-making stress on the officer
~Bad
*Can lead to harsher punishment
*Officers can alienate the community
In the End…
-As long as you can explain and justify your decision, you are using discretion properly
~Importance of education
*Thoughts and expression
-Training is KEY
Police Subculture
-Help define the “cop’s world” and the officer’s role in it, the subculture helps shapes the officer’s attitudes, value, and beliefs
Recruiting
-That result in an adequate pool of applicants in an extremely important facet of the police hiring process
August Vollmer
-[Law enforcement candidates should] have the wisdom of Solomon, the courage of David, the patience of Job and leadership of Moses, the kindness of the Good Samaritan, the diplomacy of Lincon, the tolerance of the Carpenter of Nazareth, and finally, an intimate knowledge of every branch of the natural, biological, and social science
Both males and females listed the same six security factors
-Desire to help people
-Job security
-Crime fighting
-Job excitement
-Prestige
-Lifetime interest
*A strong positive influence in their career choice
Bruce Carpenter and Susan Raza
-Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
-Found that police applicants differed from the general population in several important ways
~Somewhat more psychologically healthy
~Generally less depressed and anxious
~More assertive and interested in making and maintaining social contacts
-Few police aspirants have
~Emotional difficulties
~Greater tendency to present a good impression of themselves than the general population
Female Police Applicants
-Tend to be more assertive and non-conforming
-Have higher energy levels compared to males
-Less likely to identify with traditional sex roles
Older Police Applicants
-Less satisfied
-More physical complaints
-More likely to develop physical symptoms under stress than younger applicants
Applicants in Large Cities
-Less likely to have physical complaints
-Have a higher energy level
~Probably explained by the fact that applicants in large cities are significantly younger
Lawrence Wrightsman
-A psychologist who believes that police applicants should be
~Well Adjusted
~Able to carry out the hazardous and stressful tasks
*Without “cracking up”
~ Thick-skinned enough to operate without defensiveness
~Generally interested in people
~Compassionate sense of the innate dignity of others
~Free of emotional reactions
~Should not be impulsive or overly aggressive
~Should be able to exercise restraint
*Especially important given their active role in crime detection
“Cop Crush”
-Exacerbated in many cities by exploding growth, a competitive job market, fiscal challenges, and struggles to retain diversity
-Police need a stronger focus on problem-solving skills, the ability to collaborate with the community, and a greater capacity to use technology
“Us vs. Them”
-There is only one big “us”
~Easier to have compassion and help someone when you identify with them
*Regardless of which side of the law they may be on at the moment
Female Officers to Leave
-About 60% leave their agency during their second to fifth years due to gender bias and sexual harassment
Hurdle Process Examples
-Employ background checks
~99% of agencies
-Driving Record Check
~99%
-Personal interviews
~99%
-Psychological evaluations
~72%
-Written Aptitude test
~48%
-Personality inventory
~46%
-Polygraph exams
~26%
So-Called Hurdle Process
-CAn require more than three months to complete, depending on the number and types of test used and the ease of scheduling and preforming them
Four Types of Written Tests
-Cognitive tests
~Measureing aptitudes in verbal skills and mathematics, reasoning, and related perceptual abilities
-Personality Tests
~Predominantly the MMPI
-Interest Inventories
~The Strong-Campbell, the Kuder, and the Minnesota Interest test
-Biographical Data test
General Intelligence Test
-Often administered and scored by the civil service to the central personnel office
~Those who fail the entrance examination will go on to other careers, although most jurisdictions allow for a retest after a specified period
*Do not make the minimal score, which is usually set at 70%
~Those who pass are forwarded to the police agency for any further in-house testing and screening
Psychological Screening test
-Two major concerns in using such tests to screen out applicants
~Stability
~Sutiability
*Carefully screened in order ti exclude those who are emotionally unstable, overly aggressive, or suffering from some personality disorder
Two primary tests of stability
-MMPI
-California Personality Inventory (CPI)
-A major legal concern
~If an officer commits a serious, harmful, and inappropriate act, the question of his or her stability will be raised, and the police agency may be asked to provide documentation about why the officer was deemed stable at the time of employment
*About 2-5% of the police applicant pool many be eliminated due to severe emotional or mental problmes
Three basic Physical functions
-Getting to the Problem
~Needing to run, climb, vault, and more
-Resolving the Problem
~Needing to fight or wrestle with an opponent
-Removing the Problem
~Often requiring that the officer carry heavy weights
Character Investigation
-Probably the most important element of the selection process
~Also one of the most time-consuming and costly processes
Character
-It is a subjective yet important factor an applicant brings to the job and cannot be measured with data and interviews.
-Involves talking to candidates’ past and current friends, coworkers, teachers, neighbors, and employers
~The applicant should be informed that references will be checked and that in the course of reviewing them, the investigation may spread to other references and others who are known the the applicant
Richard Arther
-Director of the National Center of Lie Detection
-Can show that applicant could hide more information than what they led on to without a polygraph test.
~The investment of time and money for polygraph examinations can spare the public and police agencies a tremendous amount of trouble and expense later
*IT is doubtful that few (if any) of these behaviors would have surfaced during the course of a personal interview or a background check
Assessment Center
-Become more popular with police agencies
~Many departments for promotional testing and for hiring a chief executive; some agencies also use this method for new personnel
-Are more difficult logistically to conduct and are notably more labor-intensive and costly than traditional procedures, but they are well worth the extra inverstment
~mere interviewing
Assessment Center Examples
-Psychological tests
-In-Basket exercises
-Management tasks
-Group discussions
-Role-playing exercises
~Critical incidents or interviews with subordinates
-The publication exercise
-Behaviors and kills that are important to the successful performance of the position are identified and possibly weighted, and each candidate is evaluated on his or her ability to preform them
“Cadet” or “Police Trainee”
-Majority of the training is classroom-based, supplemented by practical exercises and scenarios
-During this time, if sponsored by a hiring agency, receive their first paycheck and be eligible to receive benefits
Peace Officers Standards and Training (POST)
-Similar entity that establishes minimum selection standards for law enforcement officers, sets minimum education and training standards, and serves as the certification of licensing authority for sworn personnel
~These agencies may be helpful in obtaining an idea of the state’s approach to law enforcement training
Average Recruit Training
-New Recruits is about 840 hours
~Most of the time being spent learning firearms skills, an average of 71 hours
~Defensive tactics 60 hours
Academy Training
-Recruits adopt a new identity and a system of discipline in which they learn to take orders and not to question authority
-They learn that loyalty to fellow officers, a professional demeanor and bearing, and respect for authority are all highly valued in this occupation
Working Personality
-People may believe that they gradually develop police swagger
~A confident, authoritarian way of walking and presenting themselves
*This begins at the academy for police officers
The Belt
-One of the most important components of the patrol uniform and is certainly one of the heaviest
~Oftern exceeds twenty pounds when laden with weapon, cuffs, baton, radio, flashlight, extra ammunition, chemical weapons, and so on
Sixth Sense
-A suspicious nature is as important to the street officer as a fine touch is to a surgeon. The officer should not only be able to visually recognize but also be able to physically sense when something wrong or out of the ordinary
Observations often warrant a field investigation.
-People who do not “belong” where they are observed
-Automobiles that do not “look right”
~Such ass dirty cars with a clean license plates or a vehicle with plates attached with wire or in another unusual fashion
-Businesses that are open at odd hours or that are not operating according to routine or custom
-People who exhibit exaggerated unconcern over contact with the officer or who are visibly “rattled” when near the officer
-Solicitors or peddlers who are in a residential neighborhood
-Lone males who sit in cars near a shopping center or near a school while paying unusual attention to women and children
-Persons who are hitchhikers
-Persons who wear a coat on a hot day
The body is a tool
-The recruits are taught how to position themselves unobtrusively, whether at a vehicle stop or while engaging in a discussion on the street, to gain a physical advantage should trouble arise
Hogan’s Alley
-FBI Academy in Quantico, VA, which opened in 1987 and covered almost thirty-five acres
-Facility combines training, office, and classroom space on one site, increasing training effectiveness
-The name was given to many early twentieth-century training facilities, apparently after an old comic strip about mischievous Irish kids
Computer-Based Training (CBT)
-Electronic bulletin boards, satellite training and teleconferencing, online computer forums, and correspondence courses
Training Simulators
-Becoming an important tool for police training programs
~Vechile pursuit simulators are thought to be an effective means of determining how and when a vehicle pursuit should be halted
Virtual Reality
-Trainees wear a head-mounted device that restricts their vision to two monitors and projects a computer-generated three-dimensional illusion that engulfs the senses of sight, sound and touch
Avatar-Based Interview Training (ABIS)
-Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLECT) utilized ABIS, the first simulator of its kind, is used as a tool to help students become better interviewers
~Training police officers in effective interviewing requires practice; however, finding practice time and a proper role-play setting is difficult
-Helps to overcome these resource difficulties while training police in interview techniques
Field Training Officer (FTO)
-Oldest FTO program began in San Jose, CA, Police Department in 1972
-Training program provides recruits with an opportunity to make the transition from the academy to the streets under the protective arm of a veteran officer
~Probationary status, normally ranging from six months to one year, they understand that they may be immediately terminated if their overall performance is unsatisfactory during that period
FTO programs consist of four phases
-Introductory Phases
~The recruit learns agency policies and local laws
-The Training and Evaluation Phases
~The recruit is introduced to more complicated tasks that patrol officers confront
-Final Phase
~The FTO acts strictly as an observer and evaluator while the recruit preforms all the functions of a patrol officer
Nationa Institute of Justice (NIJ)
-Surveying nearly six hundred police agencies, found 64% had an FTO program and that such programs had reduced the number of civil liability suits filed against their officers and against standardized training programs
ADORE (Automated Daily Observation Report and Evaluation)
-Now available to assist FTO program training functions
-Can be accessed through either a laptop or a smart phone allows FTOs to take computerized notes while watching trainees at work; it also reduces paperwork by allowing trainers to easily compile numbers for evaluating performance in dozens of categories
Police Training Officer (PTO) Program
-Seeks to take traditional FTO program to a higher level, one that embraces new officers and evaluates them on their understanding and application of community-oriented policing and problem-solving
-New officers must pass core competencies, specific skills, knowledge, and abilities that have been identified as essential for good policing
Substantive Topics
-The most common policing activities
Core Competencies
-Require common skills that officers engage in and that required in the daily performance of their duties
Roger Dunham and Geoffery Alpert
-“Whether an officer is overweight or out of shape, a poor shot, uses poor judgment, or is too socialized into the police subculture to provide good community policing, in-service training can be used to restore the officer’s skills or to improve his attitude
In-Service Training
-Used to recertify, refresh, or provide new information to officers in the most critical areas of their job, including weapons qualification, driving, defensive tactics, first aid, and changes in the law
Jerome Skolnick (1966)
-Working Personality of the Police
-The police role contained two important variables
~Danger
*A constant feature of police work
**Constantly facing potential violence, are warned at the academy to be cautious and are told many war stories of officers shot and killed at domestic disturbances or traffic stops
~Authority
“Symbolic Assailants”
-Individuals whom the officer has come to recognize as potentially violent based on their gestures, language, and attire
Symbols of authority
-The gun
-The badge
-The baton
William Westley
-“Expects rage from the underprivileged and the criminal but understand from the middle class: the professionals, the merchants, and the white-collar workers. They, however, define him as a servant, not as a colleague, and the rejection is hard to take.”
Chief William Parker
-“Conservative, ultraconservative, and very right ting”
Police Cynicism
-Niederhoffer in 1967, the NYPD as a longitudinal study
~Although typical recruits begin their career without a trace of cynicism, police cynicism spikes most dramatically immediately after they leave the academy
-The period about 2-6 years, cynicism rates increase but at a slower level
Police Cynicism
-Mid-Career
-About 8-13 years of service, the cynicism level begins to decline
Police Officer’s View of Humanity
-Become distorted and cynical because many of the people the police deal with are offenders
John Broderick
-Four Types of police personalities
-Enforcer
-Idealists
-Realists
-Optimists
*See page 56 in text book for more information
Traits of Good Officers
-Two characteristics
-“Passion”
~The willingness to use coercive force for the greater good
-“Perspective”
~The ability to see and appreciate both good and bad in the world
“Professional”
-Possessed both passion and perspective
-They can identify
~”Enforcers”
*An officer who is morally comfortable with the use of force but who lacks perspective
~”Reciprocator”
*An officer who possesses perspective but who is genuinely uncomfortable with the use of coercive power
~”Avoider”
*Am officer who lack both passion and perspective
Dennis Nowicki
-12 qualities that he believes are imperative for entry-level police officers
-Enthusiasm
-Good Communication Skills
-Good Judgement
-Sense of Humor
-Creativity
-Self-motivation
-Knowing the job and the system
-Ego
-Courage
-Discretion
-Tenacity
-Thirst for knowledge
*More information page 57
Herman Goldstein
-“Anyone attempting to construct a workable definition of the police role will typically come away with old images shattered and with a newfound a[[ercoation for the intricacies of police work.”
Several Groups and Individuals that rely on Police Roles
-Private citizens influence the nature of the police role though their contacts with the police, by participation in community policing programs, and through the election of public officials who set policy, and appoint police administrators
-Legislative bodies influence the role of the police by enacting statutes, both those that govern the police and those that the police use to govern others. In addition, legislative bodies determine police department budgets
-The courts actively “police the police” by handing down decisions that regulate police conduct
-Executives such as city managers and prosecutors help to define the police role by determining the type pf cooperative agreements and evidence necessary for a prosecutable case
-Police officers themselves define their roles by choosing to intervene in some incidents while ignoring others
Confined to Law Enforcement
-The prevention and detection of crime and the apperhension of criminals
Does not describe what the police do on a daily basis
-Only about 20% of the police officer’s typical day is devoted to fighting crime
~The crime that terrifies Americans the most-robbery, rape. burglary, and homicide-are rarely encountered by police on patrol: “Only ‘Dirty Harry’ has his lunch distributed by a bank robbery in progress. Patrol officers individually make a few important arrest. The ‘good collar’ is a rare event. Cops spend most of their time passively patrolling and providing emergency services.”
*Jerome Skolnick and David Bayley
Donal Black
-“Selecting arrest as a subject of study implicitly misrepresents routine police work” and “a study of arrest flatters the legal significance of the everyday police encounter.”
Explicit as Possible about the Police Roles
-We can recruit and select competent police personnel only when we have a clear vision of what the police are supposed to accomplish
-Evaluation for retention and promotion us useful only to the extent that we evaluate in terms of what the police are supposed to do
-Budgetary decisions should be based on an accurate analysis of police roles
-Efficiency an effectiveness in police organization depends on accurate task descriptions
-Public cooperation with the police depends on developing reasonable expectations of the roles of the police and the public
Policing Functions
-Enforcing the law
-Performing service
~Such as maintaining or assisting animal-control units, reporting burned-out street lights or damaged traffic signs, delivering death messages, checking the welfare of people in their homes, delivering blood
-Preventing crime
~Patrolling, providing the public with information on crime prevention
-Protecting the innocent
~By investigating crime, police are systematically removing innocent people from consideration as crime suspects
James Q. Wilson
-Two basic Functions
-Maintaining Order
~Peacekeeping
~Cosititues most of the activities of the police
-Enforcing the Law
~Less than 20% of the calls answered by police are directly related to crime control
Policing Styles
-Watchman
~”Neighbor”
-Legalistic
~”Soldier
-Service
~”Teacher”
*More infromation page 60
Women Police Officers
-During the 1970s, women were eliminated from height and subjective physical agility tests and oral interviews
-Women represent about 12% of the sworn personnel in local police agencies
~State agencies as a whole have a lower % of females than either local or federal at 6.5%
~About 15% of Federal agencies
-In leadership positions, women represent about 10% of first-line supervisors
-In-roads are being made approximately forty women have served as sheriffs in the US
National Center for Women and Policing
-Female officers are proven to be as competent as their male counterparts
-Female officers are less likely to use excessive force
-Female officers implement “community-oriented policing”
-More female officers will improve law enforcement’s response to violence against women
-Increasing the presence of female officers reduces problems of sex discrimination and harassment within a law enforcement agency
*More information on page 62
Minorities as Police Officers
-Minorities naturally feel more secure in their communities when they see and know police officers of their own race and believe that their sons and daughters can enjoy a successful career in the police service
African-American Police Officers
-Face similar problems to those women who attempt to enter and prosper in police work
-Are promoted and can affect police policy and serve as role models, they are likely to be treated unequally and have difficulty being promoted
~Classic catch-22 situation
National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives (NOBLE)
-Founded in 1976 and has nearly sixty chapters and represents over 3,000 members worldwide
-To unify AA law enforcement officers at executive and command levels; to conduct research in relevant areas of law enforcement; to recommend legislation relating to the criminal justice process; to establish means and strategies for dealing with racism in the field of criminal justice; to sensitize people to the problems of the AA community; to facilitate the exchange of information among AA police executives; and to articulate to concerns of Aa executives in law enfrocement
The Culture of the Beat
-The purpose and nature of patrol, patrol work as a function of shift and beat assignment, and the dangers that may be confronted while on patrol
Important Tools for Patrolling
-Patrol vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, and other means
Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment
-Conducted in Kansas City, MO, in 1973 by George Kelling
-Divided the city into 15 beats and categorized it into five groups of three matched beats each
Patrolling Techniques used in the three beats varied
-No Preventive patrol in one beat
~Only responded to calls for service
-Increased Patrol
~Two to three times the usual amount
-Usul level of service in the third
“Team Policing”
-Officers were divided into small teams that were assigned permanently to a small geographical area or neighborhood
“Directive Patrol” 1975
-Started in New Haven, Connecitcut
-Used computerized data of crime locations and times to set up deterrent runs (D-RUNS) to instruct officers on how to patrol
~Officers did about 2-3 D-runs in one shift that would last about an hour long
Split-Force Program
-Wilmington, Delaware
-3/4ths of the 250 patrol officers were assigned to the structured unit and were deployed in high-crime areas
~Usually in plainclothes, performed surveillance, stakeout, and other tactical assignments
*Police productivity increased 20% and crime decreased 18% in the first year
Renewed interest in Foot Patrol
-Selected New Jersey cities between 1977 and 1979
-Most the part, crime levels were not affected by foot patrol but did make residents feel more comfortable by thinking crime significantly decreased in the area
Police Response Times in Kansas City, MO
-Response times were unrelated to the probability of making an arrest or locating a witness
-Time to take to report a crime was the major determining factor of whether an on-scene arrest takes place or whether witnesses are located
These three studies should not be viewed as Conclusive
-Different results could be obtained in different communities-they do demonstrate that old police methods should be viewed very cautiously
Beat Culture/ Patrol Function
-All of which has certainly changed from Leonard Fuld observations in 1910
~”The policeman’s life is a lazy life in as much as his time is spent doing nothing.”
Various Forms of Preventive Patrol
-Automobiles
-Foot
-Bicycles
-Horse
-Motorcycles
-Marine
-Helicopter
-Snowmobiles
Attempts to Effect Good relations with the Citizens on their beat
-Realizing that police cannot apprehend criminals or even maintain a quite sector without public assistance
Beat Assignment
-Must be familiar with such details as where the doors and windows of buildings are, where the alleys are, where small businesses are located, and how the residential areas are laid out
Patolr Officers develop certain informal rules
-An officer may take the position that any person who is observed in “his” or “her” alley after midnight must be checked out-especially if that person is wearing dark clothing or is acting in a furtive or surreptitious manner
W. Clinton Terry III
-Patrol officers respond to calls about overflowing sewers, reports of attempted suicides, domestic disputes, fights between neighbors, barking dogs and quarrelsome cats, reports of people banging their heads against brick walls until they are bloody, requests to check people out who have seemingly passed out in public parks, requests for more police protection from elderly ladies afraid of entering their residence, and request for information and general assistance of every sort
Activities to Pass the Time
-Create “private places” for themselves
~Firestations, hospitals, and other places where they can wash up, have a cup of coffee, make a phone call, or relax for a few moments
-Engage in police-related activities
~Completing reports, checking license plates of vehicles that are parked at motels (to locate stolen vehicles or wanted persons), or meeting with other officers
~More relaxing activities might include exercising in the station house workout room
-Often encouraged (beginning during recruit training) to make good use of this slack time, even when engaged in random patrol, be engaging in “what-if” mental exercises
-Overlooked part of policing is that patrol officers must also spend a lot of time especially during the early parts of policing-memorizing things
~”Ten Code”
*The numbering system of streets and highways within their jurisdiction
“Attempt to locate”
-Usually involving a missing person, ranging from juveniles who have not returned home on time to elderly people who might have wandered away from nursing homes
“Attempt to contact” or “Be on the Lookout”
-An out-of-town individual asks police to try to locate someone in order to deliver a message
“Check the welfare of”
-Involving a person who has not been seen or heard from in some time
The mid-1990s encourging the use of a nationally recognized 311-nonemergency calls
-To alleviate the burden of nonemergency 911 calls
~69-90% of them are for nonemergency
~NY study found that 40% of 911 calls were accidental from “butt dials”
“Tyranny of 911”
-Nonstop calls that can send officers bouncing from one nonemergency call for service to the next
Shift Assignment
-General descriptions of the nature of work on each of the three daily shifts
Day Shift
-8am -4pm
~More information on page 75
Swing Shift
-Evening
-4 pm-12 am
~More information on page 75-76
Night Shift
-Graveyard
-12 am-8 am
~More information on page 76
“Night People”
-Those who sleep in the daytime and prowl at night
~Begins the nightly cat-and-mouse games between the police and the “bad guys”
Three “cops’ rules” are also a part of the beat culture
-Don’t get involved in another officer’s sector
~”Butt out” unless asked to come to a beat to assist. Each officer is accountable for his or her territory, and each officer must live with the consequences of decisions that pertain to his or her beat
-Don’t leave work for the next duty shift
~Take care of such practical matters as putting gas in the patrol cars and taking all necessary complaints before leaving the station house
-Hold up your end of the work
~Don’t slack off
Occupational Hazards
-Police officers never know if the citizen they are about to confront is armed, is high on drugs or alcohol, or plans to engage in a relatively recent phenomenon known as “suicide by cop”
Alarming Spike in Fatal Ambushes
-While violent crime is decreasing across the nation
-Weighing heavily on executives, officers, and trainers who believe a reassessment of high-risk fugitive and drug raids is in order
~Narely 3/4th of 2011 shooting deaths were results of ambushes or surprise attacks
“Ferguson Effect”
-An increase in the killing police officers perceived breakdown of national law and order and increase in crime and murder since events in Ferguson, MO
“Hunter Mentality”
-Resulting in an increase of such deaths comes at a time when officers are better trained and, in most cases, wearing body armor
“Wait them out”/ Luring suspects
-Experts recommend that tactics such as knocking down doors and charging inside during drug raids be replaced
Offender Profile Emerged
-Most killers of police officers have been diagnosed as having some sort of a personality disorder
The message to officers is clear
-Be watchful, follow good “officer survival” procedures and training at all times, and be prepared to use some level of appropriate force if necessary
2013 FBI announced
-Nearly 200 shootings found that about 3/4th of incidents in which agents confront suspects occur at point-blank range
~Within three yards of agents when shots are fired
-The simulated firearms training exercises that agents undergo will now have agents firing 2/3rds of their rounds at targets that are from between 3-7 yards away
Leading Cause of Accidental Deaths
-Traffic accidents 34/51 of accidents were from automobiles or motorcycle crashes
Suicide By Cop
-An act motivated in whole or in part by the offender’s desire to commit suicide that results in a justifiable homicide by a law enforcement officer
Suicide by Cop Remains Unknown for Two Reasons
-Lack of both a clear definition and established reporting procedures
-Immediate removal of suicide attempts from the criminal process and placement within the mental health arena, causing the police investigation to cease and preventing an agency from identifying a potential threat to its officers
Jerome Skolnick and David Bayle
-Policing in the US is very much like going to war. Three times a day in countless locker rooms, large men and a growing number of women carefully arm and armor themselves for the day’s events. The begin by strapping on [body armor]. Then they pick up a wide, heavy, black leather belt and hang around it the tools of their trade: gun, mace, handcuffs, and bullets. When it is fully loaded, they swing the belt around their hips with the same practiced motion of the gunfighter in Western movies, slugging it down and buckling it in front. Inspecting themselves in a full-length mirror, officers thread their night stick into a metal ring on the side of their belt
John Cronk
-“This is not a picture of American youth dressing for public servitude. These are warriors going to battle, the New Centurions, as Wambaugh calls them. In their dress and demeanor lies the future of American policing”
-“Dangerous, unpredictable, violent, savagely cunning… in a world of capable and talented reptilian, mammalian… predators”
“Warrior” metaphor
-Believing that is could negatively impact the ways the police interact with citizens and may hinder community-policing efforts
“Irretrievable Predator”
-Who possesses no sense of morality will issue such a threat, which the officer will (and must) take quite seriously
Anthony Bouza
-“The sense of “us vs. them” that develops between cops and the outside world forges a bond between cops whose strength is fabled. It is widened by the dependence cops have on each other for safety and backup. The response to help is a cop’s life-line. An “assist Police Officer” is every cop’s first priority. The ultimate betrayal is for one cop to fail to back up another.”
“Hits-the-fan”
-Which officers will race to assist another officer at a barroom brawl, a felony in progress, and so on-and which will not
Law Enforcement Officer Saftey Act of 2004
~H.R.218
-Protection of themselves, their families and our nation’s communities
~Exempts qualified police officers from state law prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons and allows retired officers having at least 15 years of service to carry a firearm
~Retired officers who carry weapons under this law do not possess any police power or immunities in other states, however, and are personally responsible for checking and understanding the laws of any jurisdiction they visit while armed
Advantages of the Uniform
-Visibilities to citizens in need
-Visual deterrent to offenders
Utility Uniforms
-Have heavier cloth and embroidered badges and name tags (instead of having pin-on) and have cargo pockets on the sides
Kelly v. Johnson 1976
-Held that police agencies have a legitimate, “rational: interest in establishing such rules and regulations to regulate the appearance of their officers
Police Uniforms Power and Authority
-Individuals ranked 25 different occupational uniforms by several categories of feelings
~Subjects consistently ranked the police uniform as the most likely to induce feeling of saftey
Menlo Park, CA, Police Department (MPPD) 1969
-Changed their uniform to Forest green blazer and black slacks
~For about a year, assaults on MPPD offices decreased by 30%, and injuries by the police dropped by 50%
~After 8 years, the look no longer commanded respect and returned to the original uniforms
Dress Code
-Officers will dress and their general appearance- so as to project a professional image and have officers be properly groomed
*More information on page 84
Administrators towards officers and uniforms and appearance
-May well inherently clash with the street officer’s viewpoints, as the latter tries to be more “expressive” in an era when tattoos and facial hair are more commonplace and less stigmatizes
Patrol Vehicle
-A place where officers on patrol spend a great deal of their time
Vital tools can be stored in or mounted on the vehicle
-The Radio
~Summoning assistance
-The warning lights/Sirens
-Defensive weapons
~Shotgun or other firearms, electronic control device (EDC) (I.e., stun gun)
-Onboard computer and video recorder
*More information page 87
Graveyard shift greatest Assests
-The Vehicle’s spotlight
Additional Features
-Driver’s seat holster
-Extra-long saftey belts
-Reinforcement front steel beams and higher rated tires
-Voice-recognition system for onboard computer
-Camera mounted in the overhead board
-“Blue-box” accident data recorder
-Crush-resistant bumpers
Ongoing increases and the unstable nature of US fuel costs
-Many officers lost the right to take their patrol cars home, or they were forced to pay for the privilege
-Officers in some communities were told to turn off their ignition whenever they are stopped and idling form more than a minute
-Some departments switched to lower-octane gasoline and installed GPS receivers in patrol cars to make dispatching more effective
-Some state troopers have begun sitting and monitoring traffic rather than cruising the highways, and they have increased their use of single-engine airplanes to look for speeders
Motorcycle Traffic Enforcement
-Assist in attempts to reduce the incidences of aggressive driving, impaired driving, speeding, and red-light running
Distinct Benefits to using Bicycles
-Maor than double the number of contacts with people, per hour, as officers patrolling in cars
-Essentially the same level of serious and nonserious work as motor patrols
-Incidents of public drinking, urination, and drug use were more readliy discovered and dealt with
~No time for offenders to hide their drugs or open containers of alcohol
-Enhance access, using altervitive routes
~Closed roads, sidewalks, alleyways, footpaths, and so on
Adventure Recreation Community (ARC)
-Includes officers patrolling Donner Lake by rotating between paddleboarding, mountain biking, and boats
-Emphases includes officers interacting with others on boards, engaging the outdoor community
Full Enforcement is a myth
-Neither the resources nor the desire to enforce them all is available, nor are all laws enforced impartially
*More information on page 89
Observe something suspicious or illegal nature, two important decisions
-Whether to intervene in the situation
-How to intervene
David Bayley and Egon Bittner
-Different combination
-Total of 770 different combinations of actions that might be taken
Criminal law has two sides
-Formality
~Found in the statute books and opinions of appellate courts
-Reality
~Found in the practices of enforcement officers
The system tends to treat people as individuals
-One person who commits a robbery is not the same as another
~mens rea
Axiom is simply a myth
-At least in the manner in which the law is applied
Kenneth Culp Davis
-“The police are among the most important policymakers of our entire society. And they make far more discretionary determinations in individual cases than does any other class of administrators; I know of no second close”
Officer’s Decisions
-Law
-Seriousness of the Offense
-Officer’s Attitude
-Citizen’s Attirude
*More information on page 91
The rank of the Officer
-As the rank increases, the amount of discretion that he or she can employ normally decreases
Advantages of Discretion
-Allows the officer to treat different situations in accordance with humanitarian and practical goals
Specter of Impartiality
-The ability of officers to treat different people differently for committing essentially the same offense
Legislatures speak with three voices
-They enact state statutes that seemingly require full enforcement of the laws
-They prove only enough resources to limited enforcement of them
-They consent to such limited enforcement
Tennessee v. Garner 1985
-Several states and local governments resricted police use of deadly force long before the US Supreme Court did away with the common law “fleeing felon”
O. W. Wilson
-“The police traffic function overshadows every other function”
Traffic Control
-52% accounts for Americans have contact with the police
Traffic deaths Decline
-In the past 6 decades due to airbags, safety belts, traffic enforcement, and engineering, public education, and drunk driver legislation
The officer displays a professional demeanor
-The attitude and demeanor projected by the citizen may well have long-term effects for both and carry long-term significance for both the community policing and public relations
“Ticket Blizzard”
-Initiated ticket quotas, and some jurisdictions pressure their officers to generate revenue
“Extinction”
-The process of people forgetting about the traffic citation they received and the need to obey traffic laws
“Photo Cop”
-Traffic enforcement has gone high-tech with the advent of the traffic camera
~Triggers the camera anything over 10mph
Good Driver Recognition Program
Traffic Accidents
Officers understand process of inverstigation and cite the guilty party
-Traffic Crash
“Phantom” Driver
“Unsung Heros”
