Section 2 Flashcards
Hiring
-Hierarchical nature of policing makes hiring key
~Recruit today could be chief in 20 years
~Suprevisors chosen from lower ranks
-Good recruits important to
~Social, legal, and political contexts
~Social contract requirements
Early Recruitment
-Began in the 1840s (NYPD 1844)
-During the Political Era
~Corrupt, unfair
~No requirements
~Little to no training needed
-Pendleton Act 1883
~Federal government positions awarded on merit
~Required exams to see if qualified for jobs
~Could not be fired for political reasons
~Federal act, but states soon followed
*NO LONGER POLITICAL!
Historically
-Policing seen as “way out” = professional success
-Today still similar
~Recruits are usually middle class (“Blue Collar”/ working class)
~KEY COMPONENT = job security (salary, benefits, promotion, etc.)
-Recruitment standards
Modern Recruitments
-Minimum Qualifications (RPD)
~Based on Nevada Administrative Code Section 289.110
~No person may be appointed to perform the duties of a peace officer unless he/she
*Has undergone a complete and documented investigation of his/her background, which verifies that he/she has good moral character and meets the minimum standards established by the Commission of Peace Officers’ Standards and Training (POST)
*IS a citizen of the United States
*Is at least 21 years of age at the time of his/her appointment
*Has successfully completed the 12th grade or has been certified by an appropriate authority as having an equivalent education; and
*Has undergone a medical examination performed by a licensed physician who confirms in writing that no physical condition exists that would affect his/her performance of the duties of a peace officer. The employing agency shall inform the examining physician of the specific functions required by the position to be filled
~A person may not be appointed to perform the duties if he/she has:
*Been convicted of a felony in this State or of any offense which would be a felony if committed in this State
*Been convicted of an offense involving moral turpitude to the unlawful use, sale, or possession of a controlled substance; or
*A documented history of physical violence
Recruitment Concerns
-Women?
-Minorities?
-LGBT community?
Recruitment Concerns
-Education
~Pros
*College produces “well-rounded” individuals
*Complexity of society requires complex skills
*Better communication and writing skills
*Promotion, Promotion, Promotion
**Education may not be required, but promoted are educated
~Cons
*College requirements can discriminate
*Policing is learned on the streets
*No evidence education makes better officers
*College education leads to frustration with the job
*82% required HS diploma
*1% require a college degree
*1% require some college credits
Recruitment Methods
-Career Fairs
-Nationwide Recruiting
-Social Media
-Targeted Marketing
-Partner with minority police officer associations
-Engage early and often
Hurdle Process
-Meeting minimum qualifications is only the first step of the recruitment process
~Tests and background checks
~Designed to remove poor candidates
~3-6 months + at times
~Problem
*Good candidates pass on the job
Written and Physical Exams
-Written exam
~Reading comprehension/writing.math/grammar/analytical skill
~70% or above
~Research unsure about impact on careers
-Physical exam
~Pass or Fail
~Varies by department
Personal Interview
-Used by 99% of all agencies
-Usually appear individually before the board(s)
-Assess aspects not measurable on tests
-Situational questions
Background Checks
-Background Includes
~Prior behaviors (drug use/criminal records)
~Family and friends
~Social media
~Tattoos
~Employment issues
~Finances and credit history (97% of departments do credit history checks)
~References
~And much more…
Polygraph Exam
-Detects lies and deception
-Base and control questions
-Records many physiological indicators
*Blood pressure, pulse, respiration, skin conductivity
**Voice Stress Analysis
Psychological Screening
-Psychological tests
~Suitable and stable for police work?
~Emotional stability, aggressiveness, personality disorders, etc.
Medical and Drug Screening
-Test physical ability to perform duties of the job
-Varies by department
-Hearing tests
-Physical exam
Finally…
-Offical job offer
-Prep for academy
~Orientation
~Physical fitness
~Uniforms
~Equipment (holster, guns, clips, magazines, etc.)
The Police Academy
-P.O.S.T
~Peace Officer Standards and Training
-648 across the US
-18-20 per class
-86% completion rate
Peace Officers
-CATEGORY 1
~Typical Nevada police officer
~Arrest powers, carry firearms, and conduct vehicle pursuits
~Unrestricted duties
-CATEGORY 2
~Bailiffs, investigators, probation and parole, school police
~Essentially same responsibilities and powers as Category 1
-CATEGORY 3
~Limited to correctional sevices
Training Hours
-Average of 760 hours of basic training
~Nevada minimus
*Cat 1 480 hours, Cat 2 200 hours, Cat 3 160 hours
-Other careers
~Doctors
*4 years
~Attorneys
*3 years
~Barbers
*1500 hours
Training Topics
-Operations 172 hours
-Weapons/Self-Defense 123 hours
-Legal 52 hours
-Self-Improvement 75 hours
-Community policing 27 hours
-Special Topics 34 hours
-Total
~483 hours
Firearms Training
-12.4% of training (60 hours)
-Public opinion
~3 in 10 believe police officers fire their weapons a few times a year
~83% estimate typical officer has been fired at least once in their career
-In actuality
~Only 27% have EVER fired their service weapon (National Police Research Platform, 2016)
Issues with Academies
-Content
~Little communications, ethics, human relations, etc.
~Poor instructors
~Old training facilities/ poor infrastructure
-Delivery
~Paramilitary structure
*“Us v. them” mentality (Skolnick and Fyfe 1993)
*“Cops as soldiers” mentality frustrating
-Danger
~Role overstressed (Kappeler et al., 1998)
~Recruits misinformed about police dangers
*90% of academy time deals with “danger-related skills”
-Too much focus on:
~Firearms training
~Dangerous calls
~”Officer Survival”
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017
-Rates per 100,000 (job-related deaths)
~Fisherman
~Loggers
~Airplane Pilots
~Roofers
~Recyclable material collectors
~Iron and steel workers
~Truck and sales drivers
~Farmers
~Grounds maintenance workers
~Electrical power-line installer and repair
Results?
-Militarization of police
-Negative social impact on community
Post Academy Training
-FTO
~Field Training Officer
*San Jose, CA (1972)
*Probation
*Assigned to older/ veteran officer
*Proven to reduce civil liability
*Risk of passing on “old” techniques
-PTO
~Police Training Officer
*Reno, NV (1999)
*FTO + additional requirements
-Formal education model
~ Agency-wide approach to problems
~Target “core competencies” of policing
In-Service Training
-Academy and FTO/PTO are only beginning
-Change always occurring
-Recertify, refresh, and new
-Most states required minimum per year
Police Personality
-Skolnick
~Police culture
*Danger
*Authority
*Efficiency
-Balance between fellow officers and community
-Culture extends into personal lives
-Police cynicism
~Constantly exposed to people at their worst
-Develos throughout their career
-View of Humanity
~Can be distorted/cynical
~Community connections can help alleviate this
Creates callous officers
Police Personality Types
-Broderick
-Four Types
~Enforcers
*Keep beat clean, make good arrests, help good people
~Idealists
*Duty to keep peace and protect citizens from criminals
~Realists
*Focus on the process with little emphasis on social order
~Optimists
*See job as people-oriented not crime oriented
What Makes a Good Cop?
-Easy to see the bad ones
-Good explained by William Muir
~Passion
*Willingness to use force for the greater good
~Perspective
*See good and bad
**Enforcer
*Recipocator
**Avoider
-How do you measure?
~Dennis Nowicki
-Foundation = honesty, ethics, and moral character
-Additional qualities imperative for entry-level police officers
~Enthusiasm
~Good Communication skills
~Good judgment
~Sense of humor
~Creativity
~Self-motivation
~Knowing job and systems
~Ego
~Courage
~Tenacity
~Thirst for knowledge
Police Roles
-Role misunderstood by both police and public
-Don’t just enforce the law
-Many different actors define the role
~Private citizens
~Legislative bodies
~Courts
~Executives
~Police
-Crime Fighter Image
~Not accurate view of contemporary policing
~20% of day devoted to crime fighting
~Harmful to public can police
*Unrealistic expectations
*Police success not like TV
Role Conflicts
-Every police officer is different
-Every call/encounter is different
~Domestic Calls
-Recruitment
-Efficiency, effectiveness, and promotion
-Realistic Image
Police Functions
-Enforcing the law
-Performing services
-Preventing crime
-Protecting innocent
-James Q. Wilson
~Maintaing order (peacekeeping)
~Enforce the law
Wilson’s Policing Styles
-Watchman
~Focus on outcomes, can cut corners
~Morally justified
~”Dirty Harry” type of cop
~HIgh discretion
-Legalistic
~Little discretion, “by the book”
~State police fit here
~Impartial, fair but server
-Service
~Focus on need, not procedures
~Refers often to social agencies
~Uses non-traditional policing techniques
~Proble solving
~High discretion
Which Prevails?
-Personality, role, function, and style…
~Differ by time and place
~Depends on agency, political climate, problems of the day, etc.
~Depends on goals
Nature of Patrol
-Backbone of policing
-James Q. Wilson
~”Gatekeepers” of CJ System
-Police department is unique because
~HIerarchy and discretion
~Patrol officer’s responsibility
*“Stress level bureaucrats”
-Patrol had training functions
~Where police learn their trade
~Where police learn “police personality”
~Where monitoring police subculture is important
*Pairing old officers with new = good or corruption?
-Leonard Fuld 1910
~”A policemen’s life is a lazy life in as much as his time is spent doing nothing.”
Functions of Patrol
-Deter crime and apprehend criminals
-Maintain a public sense of security
~Not just crime, but the perception of crime
-Help people in need 24 hours per day
-When there is inactivity…
~ Police-related activities
~Private places
~”What if” exercises
~Memorizing and refreshing on codes, NRS, roads, etc.
Standard Model Goals
-Increase the size of departments
-Random patrols (the typical way we meet police- randomly)
-Rapid Response time to calls
-Carry out major investigations (minor offenses handled administratively)
-Focus on INTENSIVE ENFORCEMENT and ARREST POLICIES (although much of it is random- due to #2)
-National Academy of Sciences
~”The above strategies are not effective for controlling crime or disorder and reducing fear of crime.”
How many officers?
-What is the impact of increased police?
-Cities with higher ratios have decreased crime rates?
~Cities with high ratios have high crime problems
*Problem
**Increases in police tend to follow increases in crime
*More often, the bigger police departments have poor organizations
-Reduced efficiency = reduced crime prevention
-KEY to proper number not always police-population ratio
Patrol Costs
-Annual Salary:
~$56,000
-Fringe Benefits
~.30% ($16,000)
-Total pay
~$72,800
-3 shifts = 8 hours each = 24 hours
-$$/hours x 8 hours = $$ X number of patrol officers per day = $$$$
-Consider OT, special pay, special events, training, patrol cars (gas, tires, etc.), equipment
-2018
~$64 million budget (patrol approx. 63% = $40.3 million/360 = $112,000 per day)
Patrol
-Backbone of policing
~Represents not only department but the government
~Most public contact
~High cost (financially, influential, etc.)
-So, how do we ensure it is done more effectively?
~RESEARCH
Directed Patrol Goals
-Focused scientific approach to crime and patrol
-Problem driven approach
-Focus on problem locations
-Use alternate patrol methods
KEY RESEARCH Study
-Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment
~Kansas City, MO 1973
~Tested benefits of added police presence
Patrols varied within 15 police beats
Categorized into 5 beats/3 groups
**Proactive:
**Patrol intensified 2-3 times normal
**Reactive:
**No random patrol, only entered in response to calls
**Control:
*** Normal random routine patrol
-Findings
~Random patrol does not reduce crime or fears
*Fire Truck Analogy
-Kansas City Response Time Study
~Kansas City, MO 1977
~Test the following
*Relationship between response time and crime reduction
*One versus two-officer patrol cars
*Arrest during a routine patrol
-Findings
~Faster police response does not lower crime
~One-officer patrol cars are just as safe
KEY RESEARCH studies
-Patrol Productivity
-1975
~New Haven, CT
*Computer data and crime locations
*Deterrent runs (D-runs)
*Findings:
**Displace crime
~Wilmington, DE
*Split-force program
*Findings:
**Police productivity increased 20%; crime down 18%
KEY RESEARCH studies
-Foot Patrols
-1977 to 1979
~New Jersey Cities
*Crime levels were not impacted, but residents felt safer
-1985
~Flint, MI
*Officers had higher job satisfaction and felt safer than motor officers
-2009
~Philadelphia, PA
*Patrolled as pairs in high-crime areas
*After three months, violent crime decreased by 23%
KEY RESEARCH studies
-Directed Patrol and Hot Spots
-Kansas City Gun Experiment
~Kansas City, MO 1992-1993
*Aimed to reduce gun violence
*Extra patrol in gun crime “hot spots”
-Findings:
~Increase in gun seizure, decline in gun crime (49%), less homicides, but no difference in drv=ive-by shootings or other crimes
-Directed patrol 3x more effective than random patrol
KEY RESEARCH Studies
-Results depend on the community
-Findings may differ somewhere else or change over time
-But
~Show how old police methods should be viewed cautiously
~*Research, Research, Research
Patrol Types
-Automobile Patrol 84%
~One or two officer patrol?
-Motorcycle Patrol 5%
~Large coverage, quick response
-Foot Patrol 4%
~Beat concept, increased social contact, corruption?
-Hybrid 5%
~Bicycles, motorized scooters, Segways, etc.
-Other 2%
~Horse patrol, air, marine, water, snowmobile, “vertical patrol” in high rise, etc.
Patrol Types
-Reactive
-Traditional
-High response to calls for service (911)
-Calls control police activity
-Proven ineffective
-Costly
-Little community involvement
-“General Patrol”
Patrol Types
-Proactive
-Understand the root of the problem
-Control crime before it happens
-Prevention
-Emphasis on analysis/not force
-Difficult to implement in older departments
-Essential to community policing
-Police activity controls calls
-“Direct Patrol”
Shift and Beat Assignments
-Directly impacts patrol
-Shift
~Day (8 am-4 pm)
*Usually, most seniority work
*Greatest contact with people
~Swing or Evening (4 pm-12 am)
*Arrests more frequent than day shift
~Night or Graveyard (12 am-8 am)
*Greatest impact on officers
*“night people”
-Beat
~Loaction
*Residential areas, “bad areas,” downtown, college areas, etc.
Considerations
-Area of each beat
-Allowed response speed
-Call rates by time of day and type of calls
-Immigration, minority, and homeless population
*Crime is not evenly distributed
-Redrawing beat boundaries
-Patrol assignments
Dangers of Patrol
-Uncertainty of the public
~People may want to harm you
~”Ferguson Effect”
~Sucide by cop
-Traffic accidents
Future of Patrol
-Bilingual officers
-Technology
~Body cameras
~Facial recognition
~GPS applications
~Drones
-Use of civilians/seniors/voluntees
-Next Generation 911
What is Discretion?
-Definition
~Acting on one’s own authority and judgment
~The freedom to decide what should be done in a particular situation
-Two decisions when police observe something suspicious or illegal in nature
~Whether to intervene
~How to intervene
Necessity
-Discretion is now seen as a necessity in policing
~But sometimes, no discretion is allowed
-“Exercise of discretion is not a problem, the abuse of discretion is”
The Need For Police Discretion
-Reasons for Discretion
~Myth of ‘Full enforcement”
*Laws do not cover every situation
*Some laws are too narrow/ unforgiving
*Police work is too varied and unexpected
Considerations
-The Law
~Seriousness of the offense
~Officer’s attitude
~Citizen’s attitude
~Other
Discretion Variation
-Officer Variables
~Shift
~Criem Type
~Parter or not?
~Same race/ gender/ SES as suspect?
~Type of police (watchman/ Legalisitc/ Service)
-Offender Variable
~Adult or minor
~Ethnic/Cultural similarity to the police officer
~Suspect Demeanor
~Class/ Income
~Gender
-Situation Variables
~Day/ Night
~Severity of Crime
~Weapons
~Police or Citizen Initiation?
~Externals
*Other officers, media, public, etc.
-System Variables
~Law
*DUI, DV, etc.
~Time of day
*End of shift?
~Action = income/ overtime?
~Traing/ Ethical Nature
~Extent of available social services
*Shelters, animal control, soup kitchens
~Extent to which the department monitors behaviors
*Quotas, reports, etc.
-770 different combinations of activities in a single traffic stop
Types of Discretion
-Selective Enforcement
~High Discretion
~Can Appear Discriminatory?
~Treat each situation on its own merits
~Officers remain the final decision maker or
~Officer can treat each case individually (flexibility)
~Can lead to unequal treatment (selective enforcement)
~Officers can pick and choose how and why they apply the law
-Zero Tolerance
~No/little Discretion
~No Officer Autonomy
~Equal Treatment
~Unfair Application
~Officers are not tempted to play “favorites”
~Reduces liability problems
~Less decision-making stress on the officer
~Can lead to harsh enforcement
~Officers can alienate community
Types of Police and Discretion
-Watchman Style
-High Discretion (Unstructured and Uncontrolled)
~Strict/ rough
~Morally justified
~But can solve crime problems/ no tolerance
Types of Police and Discretion
-Legalistic Style
-Low Discretion (Controlled and Structured)
~ The letter of the law
~High numbers
~Formal, by the books
~Consistent, but lots of police presence in daily life
Types of Police and Discretion
-Legalistic Style
-Low Discretion (Controlled and Structured)
~ The letter of the law
~High numbers
~Formal, by the books
~Consistent, but lots of police presence in daily life
Types of Police and Discretion
-Service Style
-High Discretion (Unstructured and Controlled)
~Get to root of problems
~Diversion of offenders to other agencies instead of jail
~Police = extension of social services
~Community justice - input of community
Discretion and Police Functions
-Functions of Police
~Law Enforcement (10%)
~Order Maintenance (52%)
~Social Services (38%)
-Discretion
~Affects how these functions are achieved by these types of police officers
-Example
~Force on Patrol
*<1% of encounters
*Demeanor
*Organizational culture
*Training
*Ethical Nature
**Amount of force used
Pros and Cons
-Full Discretion
~Good
*Officers remain the final decision-makers
*Officer can treat each case individually (flexibility)
~Bad
*Can lead to unequal treatment (selective enforcement)
*Officers can pick and choose how and why they apply the law
-No Discretion (Zero Tolerance)
~Good
*Officers are not tempted to play “favorites”
*Reduces liability problems
*Less decision-making stress on the officer
~Bad
*Can lead to harsher punishment
*Officers can alienate the community
In the End…
-As long as you can explain and justify your decision, you are using discretion properly
~Importance of education
*Thoughts and expression
-Training is KEY
Police Subculture
-Help define the “cop’s world” and the officer’s role in it, the subculture helps shapes the officer’s attitudes, value, and beliefs
Recruiting
-That result in an adequate pool of applicants in an extremely important facet of the police hiring process
August Vollmer
-[Law enforcement candidates should] have the wisdom of Solomon, the courage of David, the patience of Job and leadership of Moses, the kindness of the Good Samaritan, the diplomacy of Lincon, the tolerance of the Carpenter of Nazareth, and finally, an intimate knowledge of every branch of the natural, biological, and social science
Both males and females listed the same six security factors
-Desire to help people
-Job security
-Crime fighting
-Job excitement
-Prestige
-Lifetime interest
*A strong positive influence in their career choice
Bruce Carpenter and Susan Raza
-Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
-Found that police applicants differed from the general population in several important ways
~Somewhat more psychologically healthy
~Generally less depressed and anxious
~More assertive and interested in making and maintaining social contacts
-Few police aspirants have
~Emotional difficulties
~Greater tendency to present a good impression of themselves than the general population
Female Police Applicants
-Tend to be more assertive and non-conforming
-Have higher energy levels compared to males
-Less likely to identify with traditional sex roles
Older Police Applicants
-Less satisfied
-More physical complaints
-More likely to develop physical symptoms under stress than younger applicants
Applicants in Large Cities
-Less likely to have physical complaints
-Have a higher energy level
~Probably explained by the fact that applicants in large cities are significantly younger
Lawrence Wrightsman
-A psychologist who believes that police applicants should be
~Well Adjusted
~Able to carry out the hazardous and stressful tasks
*Without “cracking up”
~ Thick-skinned enough to operate without defensiveness
~Generally interested in people
~Compassionate sense of the innate dignity of others
~Free of emotional reactions
~Should not be impulsive or overly aggressive
~Should be able to exercise restraint
*Especially important given their active role in crime detection
“Cop Crush”
-Exacerbated in many cities by exploding growth, a competitive job market, fiscal challenges, and struggles to retain diversity
-Police need a stronger focus on problem-solving skills, the ability to collaborate with the community, and a greater capacity to use technology
“Us vs. Them”
-There is only one big “us”
~Easier to have compassion and help someone when you identify with them
*Regardless of which side of the law they may be on at the moment
Female Officers to Leave
-About 60% leave their agency during their second to fifth years due to gender bias and sexual harassment
Hurdle Process Examples
-Employ background checks
~99% of agencies
-Driving Record Check
~99%
-Personal interviews
~99%
-Psychological evaluations
~72%
-Written Aptitude test
~48%
-Personality inventory
~46%
-Polygraph exams
~26%
So-Called Hurdle Process
-CAn require more than three months to complete, depending on the number and types of test used and the ease of scheduling and preforming them
Four Types of Written Tests
-Cognitive tests
~Measureing aptitudes in verbal skills and mathematics, reasoning, and related perceptual abilities
-Personality Tests
~Predominantly the MMPI
-Interest Inventories
~The Strong-Campbell, the Kuder, and the Minnesota Interest test
-Biographical Data test
General Intelligence Test
-Often administered and scored by the civil service to the central personnel office
~Those who fail the entrance examination will go on to other careers, although most jurisdictions allow for a retest after a specified period
*Do not make the minimal score, which is usually set at 70%
~Those who pass are forwarded to the police agency for any further in-house testing and screening
Psychological Screening test
-Two major concerns in using such tests to screen out applicants
~Stability
~Sutiability
*Carefully screened in order ti exclude those who are emotionally unstable, overly aggressive, or suffering from some personality disorder
Two primary tests of stability
-MMPI
-California Personality Inventory (CPI)
-A major legal concern
~If an officer commits a serious, harmful, and inappropriate act, the question of his or her stability will be raised, and the police agency may be asked to provide documentation about why the officer was deemed stable at the time of employment
*About 2-5% of the police applicant pool many be eliminated due to severe emotional or mental problmes
Three basic Physical functions
-Getting to the Problem
~Needing to run, climb, vault, and more
-Resolving the Problem
~Needing to fight or wrestle with an opponent
-Removing the Problem
~Often requiring that the officer carry heavy weights
Character Investigation
-Probably the most important element of the selection process
~Also one of the most time-consuming and costly processes
Character
-It is a subjective yet important factor an applicant brings to the job and cannot be measured with data and interviews.
-Involves talking to candidates’ past and current friends, coworkers, teachers, neighbors, and employers
~The applicant should be informed that references will be checked and that in the course of reviewing them, the investigation may spread to other references and others who are known the the applicant
Richard Arther
-Director of the National Center of Lie Detection
-Can show that applicant could hide more information than what they led on to without a polygraph test.
~The investment of time and money for polygraph examinations can spare the public and police agencies a tremendous amount of trouble and expense later
*IT is doubtful that few (if any) of these behaviors would have surfaced during the course of a personal interview or a background check
Assessment Center
-Become more popular with police agencies
~Many departments for promotional testing and for hiring a chief executive; some agencies also use this method for new personnel
-Are more difficult logistically to conduct and are notably more labor-intensive and costly than traditional procedures, but they are well worth the extra inverstment
~mere interviewing
Assessment Center Examples
-Psychological tests
-In-Basket exercises
-Management tasks
-Group discussions
-Role-playing exercises
~Critical incidents or interviews with subordinates
-The publication exercise
-Behaviors and kills that are important to the successful performance of the position are identified and possibly weighted, and each candidate is evaluated on his or her ability to preform them
