Screening for Somatic Mutations Flashcards
Intro to somatic mutations:
- Most cancers are the result of acquired mutations in somatic cells = spontaneous.
- Once mut has occurred in cell get transmission of mutation into descendant cells as it divides.
- This leads clearly to a clonal production of cells.
- Within the clone all the cells will contain the mutation as a marker.
- Within any tumour system it is likely that you will get multiple somatic mutations that happen at different points within the cancer pathway - potential accumulation of different cancer mutations.
- The acquired mutations will only exist in a subset of cells.
- They exist on a background of germline sequence.
- The variant can be rare in an individual or in the human populations.
- The variant can be recurrent and therefore more common in the human population.
What are the technical considerations that we must consider in order to assess somatic mutations?
1) . How are we going to access suitable tumour material in order to carry out tests?
2) . What is the quality of the DNA or RNA that you are going to look at? Cancer cells are not normal - may be accelerating towards apoptosis and the quality of DNA/RNA may be poorer that from normal cells.
3) . May wish to consider enriching for tumour cells.
4) . The sensitivity of the assay for detecting cancer cell mutations is critical - needs to be as sensitive as possible in order to detect low % of tumour.
5) . ? Scope of assay - may be just one mutation in one gene - might be that the mutation may occur anywhere within a gene - assay needs to be designed to take account of that.
6) . Reliability
7) . Access to relevant equipment and appropriately trained staff.
What are the traditional divisions of analysis in cancer genetics?
1) . Haematological (leukaemia/affecting blood cells):
- CML
- AML
- MPD
2) . Solid Tumour:
- Colorectal
- Lung
- Prostate
- Breast
- Melanoma
There is commonality in the genes affecting particular pathways that drive both of these cancer types.
How difficult it to obtain samples to test for haematological cancers?
- Relatively straightforward for haematological cancers to obtain specimen.
- Blood sample.
- Bone marrow sample.
- Able to process directly from blood tube.
- Repeat sampling possible at various time points in disease progression - important in monitoring treatment!
- Able to isolate specific cell types (B/T cells). Can use magnetic activated cell sorter for this (MACS).
What might you use to separate B and T cells from a blood or BM sample?
- Able to isolate specific cell types (B/T cells). Can use magnetic activated cell sorter for this (MACS).
How difficult it to obtain samples to test for solid tumours? What are the considerations in obtaining samples.
- Relatively difficult compared to access to haematological cancer samples.
- Invasive procedure will be required.
- Usually requires some sort of surgery - either complete removal of the tumour if it is appropriate to managing the patient, resection of site around tumour. Can also biopsy if you are just investigating growth.
- Difficult to undertake repeat sampling.
- Fresh tissue not readily available.
- Most tissue samples are usually formalin fixed.
- Size of sample will vary - will range from a biopsy to a full tumour resection.
- Cytology fluids can be used in some cases also.
When testing tumour samples how do we go about extracting DNA or RNA? What are the different considerations when extracting DNA from blood/marrow compared to from FFET?
Blood/marrow:
- For blood and bone marrow extraction is quite straight forward.
- Well established tech that we would use for any blood sample to extract DNA.
- Whole process is easily automated.
FFPET:
- More complex.
- A lot of upstream sample processing is required and consequently it is less amenable to automation.
- One of the key considerations is that the paraffin wax needs to be removed.
- Length of time in fixatives influences the quality of DNA quite dramatically,
What happens to the quality of the DNA in solid tissue the longer it is fixed in formalin?
- The longer the sample is help in some sort of fixative the more fragmented the DNA will become and the more cross linking will be apparent.
Outline how we might carry out tumour enrichment for solid tumours?
- For solid tumours this can be achieved through micro-dissection.
- Would first H&E stain a tissue section and identify the cancer tissue vs areas of normal tissue.
- You can then scrape away the unwanted material from the slide prior to extraction meaning that the DNA is primarily coming from tumour tissue.
- Further downstream might want to think about different steps in the pathway that can help us identify whether the sequence changes are present. Looking for low levels of sequence change.
- Can use technology such as COLD-PCR (co-amplification at lower denaturation temp) to try and promote the amplification of mutations.
- Can undertake PCR cloning.
- Can use ME-PCR (mutant enriched PCR) where you digest away your wild type germline DNA at known mutation sites - where the mutation changes the restriction site due to mutation will get the mutant copies being preferentially preserved.
How would one decide how to select an appropriate assay for the detection of somatic mutations?
Based on multiple considerations.
1) . Based on nature of mutations:
- single mutations within an exon
- multiple mutations within an exon
- multiple mutations in multiple exons
- gene fusion
2) . Consider available resources:
- Equipment
- Cost
- Experience and expertise
What 2 techniques can be used to detect fusion mutations?
1). FISH
2) . RQ-PCR - TaqMan probes.
- Performed on cDNA generated from extracted RNA
- Primers located each side of common breakpoint
- Fluorogenic TaqMan probe
- Fluorescent signal generated in real time as PCR reaction proceeds
- Amount of fluorescence directly proportional to starting template
- High sensitivity
Outline the use of RQ-PCR for detecting fusion mutations.
RQ-PCR - TaqMan probes.
- Performed on cDNA generated from extracted RNA
- Primers located each side of common breakpoint
- Fluorogenic TaqMan probe
- Fluorescent signal generated in real time as PCR reaction proceeds
- Amount of fluorescence directly proportional to starting template
- High sensitivity
- Tend to do a number of reactions for the same sample to get a picture of how much of the fusion transcript is present in the sample.
- Usually normalisation using a control gene such as ‘normal’ ABL.
- Control gene copy number reveals the sensitivity of the assay because you known what you’re expecting to see.
- Sensitivity is critical to ensure accurate negative results - when BCR-ABL transcript is not seen is it actually not there or are we just not detecting it? Need our assay to be as sensitive as it can be so we can ensure accurate negative results!
- Aim for 1000 ABL (control) transcripts per reaction as your baseline. Then express your results as a ratio of BCR-ABL to normal ABL (or whatever the control gene transcript you are using is).
What technologies can be used to detect somatic cancer mutations other than fusions?
1) . Technologies where mutations can be directly identified:
- Direct Sanger sequencing
- Pyrosequencing
- Maldi/TOF
- ARMS-Scorpions (DxS)
2) . Technologies that are more pre-screen based:
- SSCP
- dHPLC
- DGGE
- HRM
ALSO NGS AND DIGITAL PCR!
Outline the pre-screening methods that can be used to look for somatic cancer mutations that aren’t fusion based.
More traditional methodologies. We are looking for additional or novel peaks that indicate a sequence change in the sample.
Validation of this type of assay is critical because you need to be sure that the novel peak that you see is the result of a mutation that is going to have an effect. If the gene happens to be polymorphic might just be an example of common polymorphism - really need to understand your test to use this!
- CE-SSCA (Single Strand Confirmation Analysis).
- dHPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography)
- DGGE (Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis)
- HRM (High Resolution Melt analysis)
What technologies can be used to directly detect cancer mutations other than fusions?
- Sanger sequencing - can get some good sequencing from a FFPE tissue sample. Sensitivity is very important here - it is reported that only if there is at least 10-20% of tumour compared to your background germline DNA will you detect the tumour mutations. Not sensitive enough below this. Good reason to consider upstream enrichment.
- Pyrosequencing - can be very sensitive because you are looking at very short fragments.
- Some commercial kits allow you to interrogate lots of different mutations in say the EGFR gene all in one go
- Can also undertake allele specific analysis - Allele Specific Oligonucleotide probes allow for the detection of point mutations - can use Southern blotting or fluorescence.