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Early Modern World > Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment > Flashcards

Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment Flashcards

1
Q

The Scientific Revolution:

A

Term coined in 1939 – late idea

Revolution or process of change?

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2
Q

Thomas Kuhn = ‘Paradigm Shift’

A

Central to idea of a revolution was the Paradigm shift

Idea developed in 1960s

According to this view, most scientific work exists within a prevailing framework or a paradigm, ideas that prop up a scientific belief

Revolution or paradigm shift occurs when the results of scientific inquiry overthrow the paradigm itself resulting in a new paradigm

Paradigm of the humours over turned

Paradigm shift of the world overthrown in Early Modern Period

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3
Q

Science:

A

EMP called science the Natural Philosophy

Natural Philosophy = study of the natural world

‘Science’ – ‘scire’ (to know) – ‘Scientia’ (knowledge)

Science in EMP = knowledge

Not till 18th century is science identified, referred to as natural philosophy

Natural Philosophy in the late middle ages= religious study, means of understanding the glory of God in the meaning of nature

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4
Q

Aristotle and Ptolemy’s Universe:

A

Idea of universe holds for millennium

Aristotle: the philosopher, became foundation of many of the ideas held in the middle ages and beginning of EMP

Aristotle saw the Earth at the centre of the universe

Ptolemy in the second century corrected some of Aristotle’s ideas but this was the main view of the universe

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5
Q

Nicholas Copernicus:

A

Polish priest, astronomer

Mathematically Aristotle’s system didn’t work – needed a heliocentric universe whereby the sun is at the centre

Produced a book in 1543 – purely mathematical argument without proof, thus met with a lot of resistance both observational and religious

Challenged Aristotle and Ptolemy’s model of the universe

Copernicus argued mathematically argument of Aristotle and Ptolemy’s model was flawed in his book ‘on the Revelations of the Heavenly Bodies’

Mathematical hypothesis

The Copernican system – based on maths, still based on the Aristotle system, still concentric circles but changed positioning

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6
Q

The Copernican system

A

Based on maths, still based on the Aristotle system, still concentric circles but changed positioning

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7
Q

Brahe and Kepler:

A

Observed the universe and stated solar system was extinct, broadly made observations by eye

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8
Q

Brahe:

A

A Danish nobleman and astronomer

Observed celestial events such as the supernova in the 1570s – showed that the heavens changed, no fixed system of stars

Brahe – did not support heliocentric model but challenged Aristotle by stating stars changed

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9
Q

Kepler:

A

German astronomer

Developed Brahe’s observations

1609 proposed a heliocentric universe

Observations meant had to have elliptical orbits

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10
Q

Galileo:

A

Used the telescope

Convinced Copernicus correct – it was a heliocentric universe

Moon didn’t glow – reflected suns light

Other planets also had moons

Revolutionary ideas expressed in ‘The Starry Messenger’ in 1610

Changing idea that the universe is fixed and that the Earth is special and at the centre

Named moons of Jupiter to the Medici family as a tribute – funded his investigations

Prosecuted by the Catholic church due to his conclusions – attempting to say something about theology

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11
Q

Science and Religion:

A

Most scientists heavily religious – not a huge conflict between science and the church

Natural Philosophy stemmed from religion – science about religion

Mysticism essential to the scientific revolution

Epistemological Questions brought to the forefront by science

Scientism introduced by journeys to new worlds

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12
Q

Alchemists:

A

Turn (metal) lead into Gold

Half chemistry

Half mysticism

Central to the development of science

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13
Q

Alchemist – Paracelsus:

A

Used mystic arts to understand world around them

Rested on aim to get pure elements

Developed methods for scientific inquiries

Developed equipment such as the beaker and balance scales

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14
Q

The Scientific Method:

A

Ongoing process

Astronomy and Astrology not separate until around the 18th century

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15
Q

Bacon:

A

Followed system of induction

Took methods from alchemy and applied them to natural philosophy

English scholar, politician

Bacon rejected claims based on logic and reason alone

Needed to provide reason and explanation

Observe, generalised explanation, induction and then test that explanation and then may come to a conclusion –The Scientific Method

Believed strongly in ideas associated with alchemy e.g. astronomy and astrology were not separate categories until the 18th century – science not free from superstition

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16
Q

Bacon: The Scientific Method

A

Observe, generalised explanation, induction and then test that explanation and then may come to a conclusion

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17
Q

Rene Descartes:

A

Attempted to bring a new and certain foundation for knowledge

French mathematician

“I doubt therefore I think, I think therefore I am” – turns scepticism into a foundation for knowledge, even in doubt you find certainty you exist

Developed a system of deduction

2 basic substances: matter or body and mind or spirit – humans a union of these 2 substances but these substances remain separate

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18
Q

Cartesian Dualism:

A

Cartesians – rejected the Galenic view of the world, 4 humours, Descartes argues that the humours have little connection

Viewed God as the prime mover

Mind and Body are separate – no relationship between each humour

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19
Q

Sir Isaac Newton:

A

Used observation of the natural world to reinforce the belief in God

God = one not three

Unorthodox beliefs as part of the scientific revolution

Keens = Newton was the last of the magicians

Wrote extensively on Alchemy

Theory of gravity – reinforces the idea that the sun can still be the centre of the universe – brought together ideas of Kepler and Galileo

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20
Q

Scientific Societies:

A

New Developments created academies devoted to the study of major cities including Rome, Florence, Parish London

Royal society founded in London in 1660 – put together cavities of curiosities, gathering natural philosophers, museums and artifacts became apparent

Robert Hook = gave observers the opportunity to turn over the pages of nature

Gave observers opportunity to learn about nature and ‘turn over the pages of nature’

21
Q

Medicine and the Body:

A

Modern understandings of anatomy developed

Renaissance: desire for realism, painters wanted to realistically portray the human form, e.g. Leonardo Di Vinci

Physicians: desire to expand on knowledge and explore God’s creation

Anatomy had been looked down upon in middle stages but began to become more prestigious in EMP

Developing ideas of medicine, infections and germs

22
Q

Medicine and the Body: Andreas Vesalius

A

Fabric of the human body, found mistakes with Galen

Wanted to realistically portray anatomy in art e.g. Leonardo Da Vinci

23
Q

Medicine and the Body: William Harvey

A

17th century cracked the circulatory system - how blood was pumped around the body by the heart, body = series of systems, mammals reproduce by egg and sperm

24
Q

Nature:

A

Creation of God – natural laws = divine laws

Nature seen as a woman – subjection of nature

Extension of God, unknowable and divine

Older pagan beliefs – mother nature as divine

Scientific project of uncovering nature

Nature transformed into natural resources

The Death of Nature – Caroline Merchant = domination of nature and denomination of women

Bacon – nature is either free or constrained by man

Desire to make nature subservient – human at the centre

25
Q

The Enlightenment:

A

Robertson – 1750 to 1759

Israel – 1650 to 1750

Period of intellectual development between the 17th and 18th centuries

Largely associated with Philosophes (France)

Scottish Enlightenment (Hume, Smith)

26
Q

Ideas of the Enlightenment:

A

Power of human Reason

Individual Freedom of expressions

Opposition to tyranny and oppression

Progress

Universalism

27
Q

Legacy of the Enlightenment:

A

Linked to 19th and 20th Industrialisation

Liberalisation

Democratisation

Rationalism

Fascism

Imperialism

Both positive and negative legacy

28
Q

The public sphere:

A

18th Century saw the generation for the first time of the public sphere

Jurgen Habermas – German socialist and philosopher – leading scholar of the public sphere coming out of the Enlightenment “society engaged in critical public debate”

Formation of public opinion

All citizens have access

Unrestricted conference

Debate over general rules governing relations

Public sphere located in societies e.g. Royal societies, public houses, salon (salonnieres)

Christians and Jews could mix

29
Q

Jurgen Habermas:

A

German socialist and philosopher

Leading scholar of the public sphere coming out of the Enlightenment

Public Sphere = “society engaged in critical public debate”

Argues that there was a formation of public opinion, all citizens had access, unrestricted conference, and debate over general rules governing relations – If all of these things are in place than there is a public sphere and argues this comes out of the 18th century

30
Q

Republic of Letters:

A

Pierre Bayle’s News from the Republic of Letters (1684) – Public Journal that is printed and circulated, they were read by middle classes as well as the elite

Intellectual exchange – greater in the enlightenment

Letters used to debate ideas

31
Q

Enlightenment and Religion:

A

Start to see unorthodox religious views e.g. Atheism – factors such as the Scientific Revolution Reformation

Discovery of New World and new cultures spread new religious ideas

The Scientific Revolution – move from authority to observation, nature seen as less divine

The Reformation brought changes to religion making many question religion

Generation of ideas that run counter to the ideas of the church

32
Q

Baruch Spinoza:

A

Counter Orthodox view

Dutch Jew – who quickly rejected organised religion as susceptive

Pantheists: Saw God in all things – but didn’t recognise a single notable God

Pantheism widespread throughout the Enlightenment – interested in emancipation, reason and self government which they saw as threatened by institutionalised religion

Rejects Descartes view of dualism

‘Deism’ = idea that there was a God – a single creator, but that is not expressed through authority or institutional religion – simply an awareness of the natural world – runs along side pantheism

33
Q

‘Deism’

A

idea that there was a God – a single creator, but that is not expressed through authority or institutional religion – simply an awareness of the natural world – runs along side pantheism

34
Q

Pantheists:

A

Saw God in all things – but didn’t recognise a single notable God

35
Q

Pantheism and Deism:

A

Pantheists: Saw God in all things – but didn’t recognise a single notable God

Pantheism widespread throughout the Enlightenment – interested in emancipation, reason and self government which they saw as threatened by institutionalised religion

‘Deism’ = idea that there was a God – a single creator, but that is not expressed through authority or institutional religion – simply an awareness of the natural world – runs along side pantheism

36
Q

Critique of Orthodox Church:

A

Voltaire: religion most bloody religion and the most absurd – anti-orthodox sentiment. Writing for the king of Russia – established intellectual

Foundation of Deism and scientism emancipating individual from what is seen as oppression

37
Q

The Social Contract:

A

Big shift in political thinking in the enlightenment

Idea of the social contract had been around since Plato but fully developed in the Enlightenment

Idea a person’s political obligations are dependent on a contract or agreement amongst the citizens or the people to live as a formed

38
Q

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)

A
  • English political writing during the English Civil War
  • Rejects the idea of the ‘divine right of kings’ – kings have power by the right of God
  • Rejects idea that power should be shared between king and parliament
  • Sovereignty comes from the people and cannot be shared
  • Initial social contract – people make agreements to give up power to a sovereign – once transfer of power takes place the power remains with the sovereign no matter what
  • Absolutist theory of the social contract
39
Q

John Locke:

A
  • Writing at the end of the 17th century in England
  • Social contract – people give up power to government, yet government can be held to account
  • Government can be held to account if breaks agreements in the contract – people can resist the government if they threaten lives, wellbeing
40
Q

Jean Jaques Rousseau:

A
  • Writing in France in the middle of the 18th century
  • Social Contract – when forming society through decisions the people in fact come sovereign themselves – ultimately sovereignty remains with the people
  • Become sovereign, in which the government enacts in the interests of the people
41
Q

American (1776-84) and French (1789) Revolutions:

A
  • Success of American Revolution inspired Revolution in France
  • Ideas of Locke made it across the Atlantic where America and English in conflict
  • American constitution written in Locke terms – life, liberty and property
  • 1789 – new national assembly formed in France that rejected the previous system of 3 estates, Bastille took over the government following enlightenment ideas particularly of Rousseau
42
Q

Women in the enlightenment:

A
  • Generally excluded from the public sphere, particularly big roles
  • Some women were philosophers such as Emile du Chatelet, Harriet Taylor, Mary Wollstonecraft – yet usually criticized
  • Seen as irrational creatures, only needed to take care of the household and chastity
  • Roseau advocated the exclusion of women – women only needed for man
  • Women didn’t have reason thus ought to be excluded from the public sphere
  • Education not needed for women only needed feminine virtues – as they lacked reason
43
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft:

A
  • Vindication of the rights of women (1792)
  • Women’s’ manners built around making them shallow and irrational – due to society and social norms
  • Women only recognised through her husband – education about finding a man, beauty was important to secure a husband, tyranny of the husband
  • Women had reason they just weren’t taught how to use it
  • Advocated for mixed education and equality in relationships and given the same curriculum
  • Women ought to have jobs outside of the household
  • Women and men should be friends
  • If women would use reason and taught how to they would benefit society
44
Q

The Scientific Enlightenment:

A

Two main thinkers:

  • David Hume (1711-1776)
  • Adam Smith (1723-1790)
  • Wrote widely about economic thought
  • Hume and Smith participated in luxury debates
  • Question of whether the development of luxury led to the corruption of society
  • Hume luxury creates excess labour that could be used in times of crisis
  • Smith Wealth of Nations – basic tenants of capitalism, focus on growth, freedom of movement and free trade
  • Believed self interest would regulate the free market
  • Emphasis on growing markets – imperialism
45
Q

David Hume (1711-1776)

A

Hume and Smith participated in luxury debates

  • Question of whether the development of luxury led to the corruption of society
  • Hume luxury creates excess labour that could be used in times of crisis
46
Q

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

A

Smith Wealth of Nations – basic tenants of capitalism, focus on growth, freedom of movement and free trade

  • Believed self interest would regulate the free market
  • Emphasis on growing markets – imperialism
47
Q

Imperialism:

A
  • Progress and Universalism central to the enlightenment
  • Connection between enlightenment and imperialism
  • Enlightenment thinkers – clear line between educated and uneducated
  • Educated meant emancipation was possible yet ignorant needed to be guided
  • J.S Mill - “Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians provided the end be their improvement, and the means justified by actually effecting that end”
  • Progress of universalism
  • Leading way to reason and democracy
  • Movement dedicated to the elite
48
Q

Imperialism: J.S Mill

A

“Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians provided the end be their improvement, and the means justified by actually effecting that end”

49
Q

Counter-Enlightenment:

A
  • Rousseau: everything about the enlightenment was corrupt = against nature, believed luxuries were corrupting, adopted the idea of the ‘noble savage’, vices like envy and greed apparent, was a Golden Age yet mankind has since declined since then
  • Enlightenment corrupted man and took men away from nature
  • Significant counter movement that opposed many ideas of the enlightenment

Early Modern World (9 decks)

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