Crime, Morality and the Witch Craze

Question 1

The European Witch-Hunts: Witch Craze

Answer 1

Increase in trials for women

110,000 trials took place across Europe between 1450 and 1750 – upwards of 50,000 people were executed for the crime

Constant state of paranoia was not the case – maximum length of a witch panic that would strike an area was about 2 to 3 years

Witch Craze was not continuous across the Early Modern Period

Question 2

Types of witch-hunts:

Answer 2

a) Small panics/isolated trials
b) Large panics
c) Mass panics = ‘witch-craze’

Question 3

The hunts varied according to:

Answer 3

a) Chronology

b) Geography

Question 4

Chronology of witch-hunts:

Answer 4

Hunts occur at various points across this period

Even large hunts were an amalgamation of smaller instances, which occurred in a relatively small-time span

In general, trends over trials regarding witch craft

15th Century = gradual increase,

Early 16th century = decrease throughout between 1520-1550 – particularly during the Reformation as there were other concerns

Late 16th century and early 17th century = dramatic increase – usually referred to as the height of the witch craze – about 1580-1630

Late 17th century + early 18th century = gradual decline and increased scepticism about the idea of the witch

Question 5

Geography:

Answer 5

Not all areas of Europe experienced the witch craze

Half of total number of convictions and executions took place in the Holy Roman Empire

Holy Roman Empire = heartland of the witch craze

Widescale hunts predominantly took place in Central and Northern Europe

Witch hunting more intense in countries who were religiously divided e.g. Germany, Switzerland, Poland, France, Scotland

France for instance had many scares in the Pyrenes and the Alpes – variation even within individual countries

Fewer trials in England, Eastern Europe, Ireland and Scandinavia – lots of areas barely saw a witch craze at all

Witch craze over in Italy + Spain by 1550 – very early end to the witch craze as generally this was a period of height in the witch craze

Witch craft trials = localised affair

Question 6

Why did the witch-hunts occur?

Answer 6

Demonology [demonological ideas] – rejects popular/elite divide

New Demonological theories throughout the Early Modern Period – changing the term of witch craft, whereby the witch became the devil’s servant, ideas spread by many means such as books and publicly through sermons

Question 7

Continental witchcraft beliefs:

Answer 7

The pact between the witch and the Devil – sexual pact, usually between a woman and the devil that appeared in male form, pact consummated sexually, believed to receive sign on the witch’s body after the pact

The Sabbat – linked notion of witch as evil, orgiastic meeting between the witch and the devil, linked to the notion of the witch as averting the social order, believed that evil activities took place at these meetings

Night-flying – seen as flying as goats, as goats were related to lust and promiscuity

Metamorphous of witches into animal shapes, a male may become a werewolf

Demonological ideas about what the witch was doing

English witchcraft beliefs = harmful magic, previously understood as maleficium

Question 8

Why did the witch-hunts occur?

Answer 8

Legal changes – accusation (accused experienced torture) to inquisitorial (case brought by judicial bodies)

The beliefs of the ruling classes – necessary for them to believe that there were many witches and perceive them as a threat to Christendom and witch crafts had to be accompanied by popular support as well

Malificium, bad magic

Weather, hunger and fear (Behringer)

Question 9

Accusations of witchcraft:

Answer 9

• Neighbourly conflicts
• Reputation of the accused
• History of tensions between accused and accuser
• Neighbours, not witch-hunters, made up the majority of accusers
• Guilt
• Accusations did not always lead to a trial, not all suspected witches were executed e.g. 50% of the recorded outcomes in the high court of Scotland were found not guilty

Question 10

The Figure of the Witch:

Answer 10

• Witch-hunts were not specific to sex but were sex related - wasn’t necessarily the case that a witch was a woman but in most cases, they were e.g. Bavaria 25% men accused yet still 75% of women accused
• Old, unmarried women, particularly likely to be accused yet anyone could be accused

Question 11

The Figure of the Witch as a woman:

Answer 11

More susceptible to the Devil due to a woman’s carnal lust – e.g. Eve was tempted and weak, desire to be complete with a male, strive for perfection

Depicted as riding goats – perceived to be sexual and symbols of carnal lust, witches often naked and engaging in sexual acts

Women and household activities – could overthrow household order harmful women would not provide the needed nourishment and cooking of certain women, seen through a witch’s maleficium (Purkiss and Roper)

Represented figure of an anti-mother

Witch’s harmful to children – exact opposite of the desirable woman, anti-housewife and mother

Question 12

The Figure of the Witch as a man:

Answer 12

Heresy (Monter)

Related to a female suspect - relationships with female suspects of a woman who was already thought to be a witch (MacFarlane)

Mass hysteria – men prosecuted when a witch craze got out of control, all men including children could be accused in a witch craft panic (Midelfort)

Understood within the same framework as women – seen as a male ‘other’

Represented as an anti-man – used to challenge social order

Question 13

Reformations encouraged greater knowledge of religions Post-Reformation:

Answer 13

• New Codes of social discipline and personal morality encompassed every area of daily life
• Campaigns of a secular + religious activities blended
• Intolerance of popular culture that may appear pagan
• Trying to reduce behaviour that the church was against

Question 14

Banning of ‘Pagan’ or ‘Catholic’ activities:

Answer 14

• Oliver Cromwell banned Christmas

- Anything outside Orthodox church in that area

Question 15

Pre-Marital Sex:

Answer 15

Fornication and flirting punished

Women in particular could find themselves locked up

Parishes started marriage certificates – could identify illegitimate pregnancies

Prostitution faced greater legislation in this period

Distinguishing who is moral and who is immoral

Protestant and Catholic reformers approved of marital sexuality, female sexuality still ruled as dangerous

Midwifes could refuse help for a woman in labour unless she new the father

Pre-marital sex more apparent for women so they appeared in court more than men for these crimes e.g. they could become pregnant

Question 16

Homosexuality:

Answer 16

Increasing intent to diminish practise

Seen as a capital crime (mainly only referring to men)

Women homosexuality viewed as a lesser issue

Some ways there wasn’t that great a change in the Early Modern Period as always been a crime, even in the medieval times

1250 – seen as a crime against nature, capital crime, wanted to force this in greater means in the Early Modern Period

Seen as a capital crime (mainly only referring to men)

Women homosexuality viewed as a lesser issue – such as England, 1534 statute in England only addressed relationships between men and men not women and women

Medical authors – viewed sex in terms of penetration – thus women unable to engage in sexual relationship

Focus on male homosexuality

Question 17

Church and State:

Answer 17

Reformed strategies due to reformed religion

Schools used for indoctrination

Catholic countries had greater distinction between church and state

Protestant countries had greater link between the church and state

Calvinist countries = institutionalised society to identify morally wrong activities e.g. seen in Geneva, even encouraging children to report what is morally wrong, enforces certain norms that can be viewed as quite patriarchal

Attempts to enforce the moral rights

Discipline ordinances were published, legislation that published a list of acceptable behaviour e.g. seen in Germany

Question 18

Individual – Moral Introspection:

Answer 18

Emphasis on moral introspection – both Catholic and Protestant reformers stressed the viewpoint that faith should be internalised, it should form one’s moral code and one’s code of being

Not just faith but social and moral obedience was to be internalised, known through their knowledge and conduct

People encouraged to internalise obedience

Protestants emphasis on atonement of sins and receiving a good death

Catholics placed emphasis on Saints – figure of Mary Magdalene – identified as a penitent Saint

Importance of post reformation was confessional box – brought about new interests in private sins

Question 19

Family – Domestic Life:

Answer 19

Gender played key roles in the construction of the household

Contemporary literature emphasises how the early modern family represented a religious hierarchy and secular hierarchy

Susan Ammonsian: Family major sites of religious indoctrination

Women considered unstable to man thus men were viewed at being the parent to instil religious viewpoints on children

Patriarchal as man was superior in the family

Family unit an institution that instils values

Question 20

Parish and Village:

Answer 20

Reformations emphasise importance of parish

Reformations stressed role of parish communities – job of parish communities was to ensure values were being upheld

Those who challenge social order face punishment

Moral introspection – distinction between what’s expected and what happens

Early Modern period church and secular bodies worked together

New codes of discipline enforced due to new structure

Moral order has different success

Question 21

Witch Craze:

Answer 21

• Dramatic rise in the number of trials for witch craft in the Early Modern Period
• Volume of trials and executions in the Early Modern Period
• Large witch hunts were more of an exception than the norm throughout the Early Modern Period
• Witch craze could vary according to size, geography and chronology

Question 22

Reasons for decline:

Answer 22

Increased scepticism among elite classes and crucially among judicial authorities

Changes in the judicial process – impacting witch craft trials such as the reduction of the use of torture and the increase of centralisation, and need for proof – all limiting witchcraft prosecutions

Question 23

Aspects of immoral behaviour that especially start to be curved in the Early Modern Period:

Answer 23

• Intolerance of popular culture that may appear pagan – increasing prosecution of witches who were linked to superstitious practices, attempt to remove recreation
• Protestants in particular concerned about Catholic popular culture such as Christmas, plays, dances, church ales
• Catholics concerned with paganism that comes outside the orthodox church in that area
• Trying to reduce behaviour that the church was against

Question 24

Prostitution:

Answer 24

Prostitution faced greater legislation in this period – forced closures of brothels across Europe yet licenced brothels in Italy e.g. Venice

Distinguishing who is moral and who is immoral

Pamphlets warned of the dangers of prostitution

Lyndal Roper – research shown legislation theoretically addressed the immorality of the attitudes of both prostitute and her client, the reality of the situation was that her client received far more lenient treatment

Women seen as the sight of temptation, rather than the man’s desire