Crime, Morality and the Witch Craze Flashcards
The European Witch-Hunts: Witch Craze
Increase in trials for women
110,000 trials took place across Europe between 1450 and 1750 – upwards of 50,000 people were executed for the crime
Constant state of paranoia was not the case – maximum length of a witch panic that would strike an area was about 2 to 3 years
Witch Craze was not continuous across the Early Modern Period
Types of witch-hunts:
a) Small panics/isolated trials
b) Large panics
c) Mass panics = ‘witch-craze’
The hunts varied according to:
a) Chronology
b) Geography
Chronology of witch-hunts:
Hunts occur at various points across this period
Even large hunts were an amalgamation of smaller instances, which occurred in a relatively small-time span
In general, trends over trials regarding witch craft
15th Century = gradual increase,
Early 16th century = decrease throughout between 1520-1550 – particularly during the Reformation as there were other concerns
Late 16th century and early 17th century = dramatic increase – usually referred to as the height of the witch craze – about 1580-1630
Late 17th century + early 18th century = gradual decline and increased scepticism about the idea of the witch
Geography:
Not all areas of Europe experienced the witch craze
Half of total number of convictions and executions took place in the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire = heartland of the witch craze
Widescale hunts predominantly took place in Central and Northern Europe
Witch hunting more intense in countries who were religiously divided e.g. Germany, Switzerland, Poland, France, Scotland
France for instance had many scares in the Pyrenes and the Alpes – variation even within individual countries
Fewer trials in England, Eastern Europe, Ireland and Scandinavia – lots of areas barely saw a witch craze at all
Witch craze over in Italy + Spain by 1550 – very early end to the witch craze as generally this was a period of height in the witch craze
Witch craft trials = localised affair
Why did the witch-hunts occur?
Demonology [demonological ideas] – rejects popular/elite divide
New Demonological theories throughout the Early Modern Period – changing the term of witch craft, whereby the witch became the devil’s servant, ideas spread by many means such as books and publicly through sermons
Continental witchcraft beliefs:
The pact between the witch and the Devil – sexual pact, usually between a woman and the devil that appeared in male form, pact consummated sexually, believed to receive sign on the witch’s body after the pact
The Sabbat – linked notion of witch as evil, orgiastic meeting between the witch and the devil, linked to the notion of the witch as averting the social order, believed that evil activities took place at these meetings
Night-flying – seen as flying as goats, as goats were related to lust and promiscuity
Metamorphous of witches into animal shapes, a male may become a werewolf
Demonological ideas about what the witch was doing
English witchcraft beliefs = harmful magic, previously understood as maleficium
Why did the witch-hunts occur?
Legal changes – accusation (accused experienced torture) to inquisitorial (case brought by judicial bodies)
The beliefs of the ruling classes – necessary for them to believe that there were many witches and perceive them as a threat to Christendom and witch crafts had to be accompanied by popular support as well
Malificium, bad magic
Weather, hunger and fear (Behringer)
Accusations of witchcraft:
- Neighbourly conflicts
- Reputation of the accused
- History of tensions between accused and accuser
- Neighbours, not witch-hunters, made up the majority of accusers
- Guilt
- Accusations did not always lead to a trial, not all suspected witches were executed e.g. 50% of the recorded outcomes in the high court of Scotland were found not guilty
The Figure of the Witch:
- Witch-hunts were not specific to sex but were sex related - wasn’t necessarily the case that a witch was a woman but in most cases, they were e.g. Bavaria 25% men accused yet still 75% of women accused
- Old, unmarried women, particularly likely to be accused yet anyone could be accused
The Figure of the Witch as a woman:
More susceptible to the Devil due to a woman’s carnal lust – e.g. Eve was tempted and weak, desire to be complete with a male, strive for perfection
Depicted as riding goats – perceived to be sexual and symbols of carnal lust, witches often naked and engaging in sexual acts
Women and household activities – could overthrow household order harmful women would not provide the needed nourishment and cooking of certain women, seen through a witch’s maleficium (Purkiss and Roper)
Represented figure of an anti-mother
Witch’s harmful to children – exact opposite of the desirable woman, anti-housewife and mother
The Figure of the Witch as a man:
Heresy (Monter)
Related to a female suspect - relationships with female suspects of a woman who was already thought to be a witch (MacFarlane)
Mass hysteria – men prosecuted when a witch craze got out of control, all men including children could be accused in a witch craft panic (Midelfort)
Understood within the same framework as women – seen as a male ‘other’
Represented as an anti-man – used to challenge social order
Reformations encouraged greater knowledge of religions Post-Reformation:
- New Codes of social discipline and personal morality encompassed every area of daily life
- Campaigns of a secular + religious activities blended
- Intolerance of popular culture that may appear pagan
- Trying to reduce behaviour that the church was against
Banning of ‘Pagan’ or ‘Catholic’ activities:
- Oliver Cromwell banned Christmas
- Anything outside Orthodox church in that area
Pre-Marital Sex:
Fornication and flirting punished
Women in particular could find themselves locked up
Parishes started marriage certificates – could identify illegitimate pregnancies
Prostitution faced greater legislation in this period
Distinguishing who is moral and who is immoral
Protestant and Catholic reformers approved of marital sexuality, female sexuality still ruled as dangerous
Midwifes could refuse help for a woman in labour unless she new the father
Pre-marital sex more apparent for women so they appeared in court more than men for these crimes e.g. they could become pregnant
Homosexuality:
Increasing intent to diminish practise
Seen as a capital crime (mainly only referring to men)
Women homosexuality viewed as a lesser issue
Some ways there wasn’t that great a change in the Early Modern Period as always been a crime, even in the medieval times
1250 – seen as a crime against nature, capital crime, wanted to force this in greater means in the Early Modern Period
Seen as a capital crime (mainly only referring to men)
Women homosexuality viewed as a lesser issue – such as England, 1534 statute in England only addressed relationships between men and men not women and women
Medical authors – viewed sex in terms of penetration – thus women unable to engage in sexual relationship
Focus on male homosexuality
Church and State:
Reformed strategies due to reformed religion
Schools used for indoctrination
Catholic countries had greater distinction between church and state
Protestant countries had greater link between the church and state
Calvinist countries = institutionalised society to identify morally wrong activities e.g. seen in Geneva, even encouraging children to report what is morally wrong, enforces certain norms that can be viewed as quite patriarchal
Attempts to enforce the moral rights
Discipline ordinances were published, legislation that published a list of acceptable behaviour e.g. seen in Germany
Individual – Moral Introspection:
Emphasis on moral introspection – both Catholic and Protestant reformers stressed the viewpoint that faith should be internalised, it should form one’s moral code and one’s code of being
Not just faith but social and moral obedience was to be internalised, known through their knowledge and conduct
People encouraged to internalise obedience
Protestants emphasis on atonement of sins and receiving a good death
Catholics placed emphasis on Saints – figure of Mary Magdalene – identified as a penitent Saint
Importance of post reformation was confessional box – brought about new interests in private sins
Family – Domestic Life:
Gender played key roles in the construction of the household
Contemporary literature emphasises how the early modern family represented a religious hierarchy and secular hierarchy
Susan Ammonsian: Family major sites of religious indoctrination
Women considered unstable to man thus men were viewed at being the parent to instil religious viewpoints on children
Patriarchal as man was superior in the family
Family unit an institution that instils values
Parish and Village:
Reformations emphasise importance of parish
Reformations stressed role of parish communities – job of parish communities was to ensure values were being upheld
Those who challenge social order face punishment
Moral introspection – distinction between what’s expected and what happens
Early Modern period church and secular bodies worked together
New codes of discipline enforced due to new structure
Moral order has different success
Witch Craze:
- Dramatic rise in the number of trials for witch craft in the Early Modern Period
- Volume of trials and executions in the Early Modern Period
- Large witch hunts were more of an exception than the norm throughout the Early Modern Period
- Witch craze could vary according to size, geography and chronology
Reasons for decline:
Increased scepticism among elite classes and crucially among judicial authorities
Changes in the judicial process – impacting witch craft trials such as the reduction of the use of torture and the increase of centralisation, and need for proof – all limiting witchcraft prosecutions
Aspects of immoral behaviour that especially start to be curved in the Early Modern Period:
- Intolerance of popular culture that may appear pagan – increasing prosecution of witches who were linked to superstitious practices, attempt to remove recreation
- Protestants in particular concerned about Catholic popular culture such as Christmas, plays, dances, church ales
- Catholics concerned with paganism that comes outside the orthodox church in that area
- Trying to reduce behaviour that the church was against
Prostitution:
Prostitution faced greater legislation in this period – forced closures of brothels across Europe yet licenced brothels in Italy e.g. Venice
Distinguishing who is moral and who is immoral
Pamphlets warned of the dangers of prostitution
Lyndal Roper – research shown legislation theoretically addressed the immorality of the attitudes of both prostitute and her client, the reality of the situation was that her client received far more lenient treatment
Women seen as the sight of temptation, rather than the man’s desire
