Science pathway 2 gang Flashcards
Climate sensitivity
the measure of temperature change in the climate dependent on the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere
Palaeclimates
shows the wide range of climates over various time scales, and transitions between them
Greenhouse effect
natural effect of the Earth’s atmosphere trapping heat, which keeps the Earth’s temperature stable.
Define global warming
The observed rise in the average near-surface temperature of the Earth
gases involved in global warming
Carbon Dioxide, Nitrous Oxide, methane, CFC’s (Chlorofluorocarbons), HCF’s (Hydrofluorocarbon) and Ozone
main cause of global warming
The burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil has resulted in increased levels of greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere that are trapping heat, causing the atmosphere to heat up.
What is one other cause of global warming
Grazing animals like cattle and sheep produce large amounts of methane as a waste product.
What are 5 effects of global warming
Melting ice caps, rising sea levels, more extreme weather events, ocean acidification and increased coastal flooding
solutions to global warming
Use renewable energy, stop using fossil fuels and invest in energy efficient appliances
what is DNA
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. The chemical substance found in all living things that encodes the genetic information of an organism. DNA is composed of nucleotides, which are linked together in a chain.
what are genes
Segment of DNA molecule with a coded set of instructions in its base sequence for a specific protein product. When expressed, may determine the characteristics of an organism
Chromosomes
tiny thread-like structures inside the nucleus of a cell. Chromosomes contain the DNA that carries genetic information.
what is the difference between somatic and sex cells
Somatic cells are cells of the body that are not sex cells, sex cells Are cells involved in sexual reproduction (Sperm & Ovum)
Types of autosomes and sex chromosomes and what are they
Autosomes are non sex chromosomes whereas Sex chromosomes are chromosomes in a cell that determine gender (X or Y)
Homologous chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes are matching pairs of chromosomes, Non-Homologous are pairs of chromosomes that do not match
what is a karyotype
A picture showing the chromosomes present in a cell. Shows number and general appearance (Size, Shape and banding)
fertilisation
Penetration of the ovum by a sperm
Phenotype
Outward expression of a genotype, also influenced by environment
Genotype
Genetic instructions inherited from parents
Dominant
Refers to a trait that will only require one allele to be present for it to be heterozygous (RR/Rr)
Homozygous
Having two identical alleles for a characteristic trait within the genotype (Homozygous dominant BB/Homozygous recessive bb)
Heterozygous
Having two different alleles for a characteristic
Recessive
Refers to a trait that will only be expressed in the absence of a dominant trait (rr)
Sex linked inheritance
An inherited trait coded for by genes located on sex chromosomes
Somatic cells
cells of the body that are not sex cells
Autosomes
non-sex chromosomes
Homologous
matching pair of chromosomes
non-homogolous
used to describe the chromosomes that do not match
sex chromosomes
Chromosomes in a cell that determine gender. (females = XX, Males = XY)
telomere
a cap of DNA on the tip of a chromosome that enables DNA to be replicated safely without losing valuable information
telomerase
an enzyme involved in maintaining and repairing a telomere
Nucleic acids
molecules made up of nucleotides, which are linked together in a chain
Nitrogenous Bases
adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine and uracil are examples of nitrogenous bases that may be found in nucleotides.
base pairing rule
the concept that in DNA every adenine (A) binds to a thymine (T), and every cytosine (C) binds to a guanine (G). Also known as Chargaff’s rule.
double helix
DNA molecules have the appearance of a spiral ladder or double helix, a sugar–phosphate backbone or frame, and steps that are made up of nitrogenous bases joined together by hydrogen bonds.
Triplet
a sequence of three nucleotides in DNA that can code for an amino acid.
Asexual reproduction
reproduction that does not involve fusion of sex cells (gametes)
sexual reproduction
involves the joining together of male and female reproductive cells (gametes)
cytokinesis
the division of the cytoplasm of the cell
Diploid
The paired set of Chromosomes in a Somatic cell (2n)
Haploid
Half the number of chromosomes in a gamete
tetraploid
each cell contains four sets of chromosomes
Paternal chromosomes
chromosomes carried in the sperm
Maternal chromosomes
chromosomes from the ovum
crossing over
A source of variation that involves the exchange of Alleles during meiosis
haploid gamete
a sex cell containing only one set of chromosomes
zygote
formed by the fusion of male and female sex cells
boy or girl
if an X chromosome carrying gamete fertilises the ovum then it is a female. If a Y chromosome carrying gamete fertilises the ovum then it is male
inheritance
genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring
alleles
alternative forms of a gene for a particular characteristic. Each allele has a different nucleotide sequence.
Carrier
a person who is heterozygous for a characteristic and therefore does not express the recessive trait
Complete dominance
type of inheritance in which the dominant trait requires only one allele to be present for its expression. It 1masks the allele for the recessive trait.
co-dominance
type of inheritance in which the heterozygote shows the expression of both alleles in its phenotype
Biodiversity
variation in the different communities and their environments on Earth
Charles Darwin
proposed the process of natural selection, explained why species change over many generations. Research proves that natural selection is the most likely process to explain evolution
Natural selection
The non-random selection of particular phenotypes to make them more or less prevalent in a population, depending on suitability to the environment.
Selective agent
the different biotic and abiotic factors that influence the survival of organisms (the environmental factor that acts on the population)
Constellations
a group of stars in the sky that take a particular shape.
The Big Bang theory
The big bang theory states that the universe always changes, it was formed by a big ball of matter and it hasn’t always been around and will eventually die
What is the steady state theory
The steady state theory states it is and always has been the exact same for ever and will never change.
atomic number
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number determines which element an atom is
planets
large objects that orbit a star. Planets do not produce their own light
galaxies
very large groups of stars and dust held together by gravity
nebulae
clouds of dust and gas that can be pulled together by gravity and heat up to from a star
protostar
the final stage of the development of a star in which the temperature is not quite high enough for nuclear fusion to occur
star
a luminous ball of gas, mostly hydrogen and helium, held together by its own gravity
small stars
stars smaller than 8x the mass of our sun
red giant
Star in the late stage of its life. Cooler than main sequence stars and in their core helium is fused to form carbon and other heavy elements
planetary nebula
a ring of expanding gas caused by the outer layers of the star being thrown off into space
white dwarf
the core remains after a red giant sheds its layers of gases. No nuclear reactions occur, gravity pulls it into a core of very dense matter. It slowly cools and become a black dwarf
large star
star larger than 8x the mass of the sun
red supergiant
as hydrogen is running low in the core. This very large star continues to expand until it explodes
super nova
Huge explosion that happened at the end of the life cycle of supergiant stars. A neutron star or black hole remains
neutron star
extremely dense remnants of a supernova. Gravity forces protons and electrons to fuse forming neutrons
black holes
the remains of a star, which forms when gravity of a large neutron star is so great that not even light can escape
nuclear fusion
the joining of the nuclei of lighter elements to form another element, with the release of energy
apparent magnitude
the brightness of a star as seen from earth
absolute magnitude
actual brightness if a star
Hertzsprung-russell diagram
a plot of the characteristics that a star has at a certain point in its life. Sorts stars on their diameter. The more luminous a star is, the greater it’s diameter, and higher the temperature
main sequence
area on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram where the majority of stars are plotted. In their adult phase they undergo nuclear fusion and are stable
red giant
a star in the late stage of its life. Cooler than main sequence stars and in the core helium is fused to form carbon and other heavier elements
death of a star
The rapid pulsations lead to the destruction of the star. The nature of its death depends on the size of the star
singularity
a single point of immense energy present at the time of the Big Bang
Big Bang timeline
- All that existed was energy which was concentrated into singularity
- Time and space began. Space was expanding quickly and temperatures were very high
- The universe as the size of a pea, matter in the form of particles formed. Particles collided with each other releasing energy as light
- Protons and neutrons had formed as a result of collisions
- The universe expanded and cooled. Became the same size as the solar system. Atoms didn’t exist
- Expanded to more than trillion trillion km. Cooled to 10 billion degrees Celsius
- The nuclei of hydrogen helium and lithium are formed
- Was about a thousandth of the universe now. Cooled to 3000°C. Atoms began to form. Enough empty space to allow light to escape into the outer edges. The universe was dark
- Stars began to form. gravity pulled lighter elements together. Nuclear fusion began to form heavier elements. Around stars clouds of matter cool and clump to form planets
- Universe became ‘lumpy’. Gravity pulled matter towards the ‘lumpier’ regions to form galaxies
behaviour
every action and response in which an individual engages.
nervous system
the system of nerves and nerve centres in a being in which messages are sent as an electrical and then a chemical impulse. Made up of CNS and PNS
central nervous system
the part of the nervous system which is composed of the brain and spinal chord
peripheral nervous system
part of the nervous system that is made up of sensory and motor neurone. It connects the CNS to te rest of the body, and detects and responds to change
cell body
contains major organelles eg. the nucleus of a neuron, containing genetic information (DNA)
dendrites
structure that relays information to the cell body of a neuron
axon
Carries messages away from the cell body
myelin
Insulates and protects the axon
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messenger that carries impulses across the synaptic gap across transmitters
sensory neurons
detects change in a bodies internal environment and sends a message to the CNS
interneurons
Nerve cell that carries the nerve impulse through the CNS. Is a link between the sensory and motor neurons
motor neurons
A nerve cell that causes an effector to respond to a stimulus
reflex arc
a nervous pathway involving a small number of neurons. Occurs when nervous impulses travel from the receptor only to the spinal chord and then to the effector
hindbrain
Lower part of brain Controls vital functions (eg. Heart rate, breathing and balance). Made up of Medulla, Pons and the cerebellum
midbrain
area between the hindbrain and forebrain which is involved with vision and hearing. Includes the reticular active system (attention, sleep and arousal)
forebrain
located above the midbrain, divided into two hemispheres. Responsible for complex processes , made up of the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Limbic system and cerebrum
thalamus
Acts as a relay station for sensory information
Hypothalamus
regulates body temp, motivation, emotion also involved with hunger, thirst and sex behaviour
Limbic system
memory, emotion, sex, aggression. Made up of the hippocampus and amygdala
cerebrum
Large part of the brain (70%), coordination of voluntary activity in the body
left hemisphere
left side of the brain which controls language, logic and problem solving (Maths)
right hemisphere
responsible for most non-verbal functions. Deals with imagination, feelings, art and spatial relations
cerebral cortex
wrinkled part of the brain: controls mental processes such as thought.
corpus collosum
the structure that connects the two hemisphere of the brain.
association areas
involved in higher mental functions, learning, remembering thinking and speaking
frontal lobe
Movement and thinking
motor cortex
an area behind the frontal lobes that controls movement
Broca’s area
Produces language (left hemisphere) Connected to wernickes area by nerve fibres. Damage can affect speech production
parietal lobe
touch sensation & spatial relationships
sensory cortex
receives info from skin senses and from the movement or body parts
occipital lobe
Visual cortex
What are the 5 different cortex
sensory, motor, visual, auditory, olfactory.
primary visual cortex
area at the base of the occipital lobe. Registers, processes and interprets visual information sent from each eye
temporal lobe
Process sounds including speech
primary auditory cortex
area of the temporal lobes that registers and processes auditory(sound) information. The one on the right hemisphere specialises in processing non verbal sounds and the left temporal lobe specialises in verbal sounds associated with language.
Wernicke’s area
area in the left temporal lobe responsible for speech comprehension. Connected to a Broca’s area by nerve fibres. Damage can result in an inability to understand words
psychology
the systematic study of behaviour and mental processes including perception cognition and emotion
overt behaviours
observable behaviours clearly visible to others
covert behaviours
behaviours hidden from others but represented internally
cognition
the process of thinking or mentally processing information
emotion
a psychological experience, known as a feeling
Phineas Gage Case
an explosion at work in 1848 put an iron rod through Gages face. In minutes he regained consciousness and could walk and talk. Although after the accident he was as intelligent in terms of movement, memory and speech, his personality changed into a more irresponsible, indecisive and disrespectful one. Years later, it was discovered that damage to the frontal region of his brain caused this change
Intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, to think rationally and to deal with the environment effectively.
Achievement tests
to measure the effects of a particular program of instructions
Intelligence test
to measure what a person can do without training and education
Aptitude test
a test that rates a persons potential to learn certain abilities
8 intelligences
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily kinaesthetic, visual spacial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic
linguistic intelligence
sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages and the capacity to use language
logical-mathematical intelligence
the capacity to analyse problems logically, carry out mathematical operations and investigate issues scientifically
Musical intelligence
skill in the perfomance, composition and expression of musical patterns
Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
potential of using ones own body or parts of the body to solve problems or to fashion products
visual-spatial intelligence
the potential to recognise and manipulate the patterns of wide space as well as the patterns of more confined areas
interpersonal intelligence
capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people
intrapersonal intelligence
capacity to understand oneself and use this information effectively to regulate ones life
naturalistic intelligence
ability to see patterns and relationships in nature
Goleman
claimed that emotional intelligence was more important than IQ. It was later modelled to be a set of abilities. They suggested that it is made up of emotional, perception/expression, facilitation, understanding and management.
emotional perception/ expression
ability to identifying emotions in oneself and others, ability to express emotions and distinguish between honest/dishonest feelings
emotional facilitation
ability to prioritise and generate thoughts and feelings to appreciate multiple POV facilitate judgement, memory, problem solving, creativity
Emotional understanding
ability understand complex feelings, transitions of emotions and the cause of certain emotions
Weight
a measure of the size of the gravity force pulling an object to the centre of a massive body. The weight of an object depends on its mass, weight=mass(kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg). On earth the gravitation field strength is 9.8N/kg
thrust
forward push
resistant forces
Forces that push against the direction of movement. An effort force must be greater than A this force in order to work on an object
Newton’s first law of motion
known as the law of inertia: an object remains at rest or continues to move with the same speed in the same direction unless acted on by an outside, unbalanced force.
inertia
property of objects that make them resist changes in their motion
The greater the mass of the object, the more inertia it has
Newtons second law of motion
the acceleration of an object equals the total force on the object divided by its mass. Formula- a=F/m and F=am
net force
the resultant force of two or more forces acting on an object. Takes direction into account
If net force is in (N) and the mass is in (kg) the acceleration will be in m/s2(squared)
Larger masses accelerate less rapidly than smaller masses acted on by the same total force
A particular object accelerates more rapidly when a larger total force is applied. When all of the forces on an object are balanced, the total force is zero
Because mass is inversely proportional to acceleration, a large mass will have a small acceleration
What are two forces acting on a spacecraft
Two forces acting on a spacecraft include the weight of gravity and the upward push of burning fuel. The net force is the difference between the two. As the mass gets smaller (burning fuel) the acceleration increases
mass
the quantity of matter in. A body that occupies a volume. Mass never changes but weight can change in different places
average speed
distance travelled divided by time taken
speed
a measure of how fast or slow an object is moving, the rate of change of distance with respect to time
rate
how fast an event happens, e.g. the speed of a reaction
velocity
a measure of the rate of change in displacement. Unlike speed, it involves direction as well as a magnitude.
instantaneous speed
speed at any particular instant of time
displacement
the distance between the origin and destination
acceleration
the rate of change/increase in speed
deceleration
decrease in speed resulting in negative acceleration
Atomic number
number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number determines which element an atom is
mass number
the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
metals
elements that have high shine/lustre, are good conductors of heat and electricity, are ductile, are malleable and have high melting points, except mercury which melts at-40°. Solid at room temperature except for mercury
non-metals
elements that are dull or glassy, brittle, not malleable, poor conductors of heat and electricity and have low melting points. Most non metals are gases at room temperature
metalloid
elements that have the appearance of metals but properties of metals and non metals
molecules
particles with two or more atoms joined (bonded) together
electron shell diagram
diagram showing electrons in their shells around the nucleus of an atom
shell
energy levels around the nucleus of an atom into which electrons are arranged
electron configuration
an ordered list of the number of electrons in each electron shell, from inner (low energy) to outer (higher energy) shells
neutral
having equal amounts of negative and positive electric charge and, therefore, no overall electric charge. Atoms are neutral whereas ions have either a positive or negative electric charge.
If enough energy is supplied to an atom, electrons can move from one shell (or energy level) to another (higher) energy level. When electrons move between energy levels, they either absorb or emit an amount of energy. Electrons returning to a lower energy level emit this energy in the form of light.
Ions
atoms or groups of atoms that have lost or gained electrons
Cations
atoms or groups of atoms that have lost electrons and are positively charged
Anions
atoms or groups of atoms that have gained electrons and are negatively charged
Ionic compounds
compounds containing positive and negative ions held together by the electrostatic force
properties of ionic compounds
made up of positive and negative ions, usually solids at room temperature, high melting points due to strong electrostatic force, dissolvable in water, aqueous solutions normally conduct electrify
Ionic bond
a type of bonding that involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another due to the strong electrostatic force between the oppositely charged ion
Valency
is equal to the number of electrons that each atom needs to gain, lose or share to fill its outer shell
alloy
mixture of several metals or sometimes a metal and a non-metal, such as carbon
rate
how fast an event occurs eg. The speed of a reaction
What can speed up a chemical reaction- Increase in temperature, surface area increase, concentration of the reactants, exposure to light
temp eg.
refrigerating food, slows down the chemical reaction that spoils food, heating particles making the move faster and collide with each other(speeding up the reaction)
amount eg.
fanning a fire to increase the oxygen given yo the wood in a wood fire
surface area eg.
bath bombs dissolve into water slowly, but if it was crushed into pieces and added to the water (larger surface area) it would result in a the bath bomb dissolving faster
catalyst
chemical that speeds up the reaction but is not consumed in the reaction
industry catalysts
iron + iron oxide is used to produce ammonia gas which is used for fertiliser and explosives, vanadium oxide used to produce sulfuric acid (increasing temperature to 450°C speeds up reaction), Zeolites- crystalline substances that are used as catalysts to break up large molecules in crude oil
everyday catalysts
cars fitted with catalytic converters used to reduce the pollution of CO and N20 (nitrogen oxide is turned into less harmful gas and oxygen is added to CO to make it CO2 so it’s less harmful), contact lenses using hydrogen peroxide
enzymes
biological catalyst, helps you digest food, break down toxic waste and other chemical processes
amylase
Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch into sugar
catalase
enzyme in the liver involved in the break down of hydrogen peroxide a toxic waste product from the cells in the body
maximum electrons in outer shell
2n2(squared) - substitute in shell number (shell one-four)
period
number of shells
groups
number of electrons in valant shell
neutralisation
reaction between an acid and a base. Salt and water are the products of this type of reaction eg. Antacid (with MgO) for too much hydrochloric acid in stomach. The base (antacid) neutralises the acid (hydrochloric acid)
salt
one of the products of the reaction between an acid and a base. The salt contains the positive metal ion from the base and the negative non-metal ion from the acid.
Metal + acid = hydrogen gas + sal
photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water —–> Glucose + Oxygen
cellular respiration
glucose + oxygen ——> carbon dioxide + water + energy
what does deforestation result in
results in less less producers being able to photosynthesis which means there is more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and it adds to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Study punnet squares
yes :)
what are metals
yes
Willhelm Wundt
known as the ‘father of science’ for gathering actual evidence which made psychology a scientific study. Set up a lab to study consciousness. Wanted to test how sensations, images and feeling were formed by measuring certain stimuli
