Science- Part 2 Flashcards
1
Q
how does the skin make vitamin d
A
by absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun
2
Q
what is the purpose of vitamin d
A
to help the large intestine aborb dietary calcium
3
Q
what are melanocytes
A
cells in the epidermis that produce and distribute melanin, which is a skin pigment that helps protect against ultraviolet radiation
4
Q
what are hormones
A
chemical messengers secreted by ductless glands to the cells and organs on which they have an effect (target sites)
5
Q
which is faster hormones or nerves?
A
nerves. Hormones travel through blood, so they take much longer to get there than nerve signals.
6
Q
Which lasts longer- hormones or nerves?
A
hormones. they can remain in the blood stream much longer than a nerve signal
7
Q
what releases epinephrine (aka adrenaline)
A
the adrenal glands
hence why an adrenaline rush (hormone) lasts longer than initial fright (nerve signal)
8
Q
what is an endocrine gland?
A
a gland that does not have a duct
9
Q
what is an exocrine gland?
A
a gland that delivers its secretions by tube to an epithelial surace or mucosa
IT DOES HAVE A DUCT.
10
Q
examples of exocrine glands/secretions
A
salivary glands- saliva
pancreatic amylase
11
Q
why is the pancrease unique
A
it secrets both enzymes and hormones
12
Q
give an example of the pancrease in the endocrine system
A
it releases insulin, which is a hormone that triggers uptake of glucose into cells. Lowers blood glucose levels.
13
Q
what organs are in the endocrine system (8)
A
pineal gland pituitary gland thyroid gland hypothalamus thymus adrenal glands pancreas ovaries/testes
14
Q
what do beta cells do
A
in the pancreas, they dectect the levels of glucose in the blood and adjust the amount of insuline they secrete
15
Q
What cells are able to detect blood glucose levels?
A
alpha and beta cells in the pancreas
16
Q
What do alpha cells do
A
In the pancrease, they dectect levels of glucose in the blood. If levels are too low, they can secrete glucagon.
17
Q
What does glucagon do
A
stimulates its target cells in the liver to convert hepatic glycogen stores into glucose and relase that glucose into the blood
18
Q
what mechanism is used for pancreatic cells to maintain blood sugar
A
negative feedback mechanisms
meaning you stop producing hormones when levels are reached
19
Q
what disease results from pancreative hormone regulation malfunction
A
diabetes
20
Q
how are MOST hormone levels regulated
A
through negative feedback
21
Q
what is the integration center between the endcorine system and the nervous system? what does it do?
A
the hypothalamus
produces releasing hormones that stimulate &
inhibiting hormones that restrict hormones that come from the anterior pituitary gland
22
Q
what secretes growth hormone
A
anterior pituitary
23
Q
what happens when the anterior pituitary ignores GHIH
A
gigantism
long bones continue grow
24
Q
what does thyroid hormone do
A
regulares growth, development an dmetabolic rate
25
what initiates the release of TH
TSH from the anterior pituitary
| TSH is triggered by TRH from the hypothalamus
26
what causes hyperthyroidism
a malfunction of negative feedback loop of TSH
27
what is positive feedback in the endocrine system
increasing the amount of hormone in a situation
28
what hormone uses positive feedback during labor
ocytocin is produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary
cervical stretching triggers the release of oxytocin
oxytocin stiumlates uterine contractions which causes more cervical stretching and more oxytocin
29
what is melatonin
a hormone produced by the pineal gland that maintain circadian rhythm
30
what are the target organs of melatonin
eye, hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
31
what secretes FSH
anterior pituitary
32
What does FSH do
stimulates the production of eggs in ovaries
stimulates production of estrogen from ovaries
stimulates production of sperm in testes
33
what is the ovaries' primary hormonal secretion
estrogen
34
what secrets LH
anterior pituiary
35
What does LH do
trigger ovulation in ovaries
| triggers testosterone production in testes
36
What is the primary homrone secreted by the testes? Where else can be it be secreted from?
Testosterone
| adrenal glands in both men and women
37
What are estrogen and testosterone derived from?
choleserol because they are steroid hormones
38
What is a steroid hormone
a hormone made from cholesterol. lipid construction makes it easy for them to pass through membranes.
39
What is the main function of steroid hormones
to affect transcription (the expression of specific genes) in their target cells. Think seconary sex characeristics in pubery.
40
How do non-steriod hormones get into cells?
Via receptor sites on cell membranes
| They bind to the receptors and that triggers internal signals within the cells
41
What is the thymus? What does it do?
A gland behind sternum in adults (much larger in children) that prouces immune nonsteriod hormones like Thymosin.
Also where T-cells of the immune system are produced
42
What is the parathyroid
A small group of four bean shaped encodrince glands underneath the thyroid gland. It secretes PTH when calcium levels are low.
43
What does PTH do?
regulates plasma calcium levels
indirectily activates osteoclasts from bones
It also inhibits the kidney's ability to transfer calcium ions to urine
44
what are the steroid hormones
testosterone, estrogen
45
testosterone
testes
| promotes development of male sex characteristics
46
estrogen
ovaries
| promotes development of female sex characteristics
47
epinephrine
adrenal gland
| regulates heart rate, blood rpessuer
48
FSH
anterior pituitary
| stimulates development of eggs in ovareis and sperm in testes
49
Glucagon
pancreas
| triggers liver to convert hepatic glycogen stores into glucose and release glucose into the blood
50
Growth Hormone
Anterior pituitary
| stimualtes tissue growth
51
inhibiting hormones
hypothalamus
| restrict the production of certain hormones
52
insulin
pancrease
| a hormone that triggers the influx of glucose into cells, tthus loweing blood glucose levels
53
luteinizing hormoone
anterior pituitary
| triggers ovulation in ovaries and production of testosterone by testes
54
melatonin
pineal gland
| plaus a role in maintaining circadian ryhyms
55
oxytocin
posterior pituitary
| stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth
56
parathyroid
parathyroid gland
| elevates plasma calcium levels
57
releasing hormones
hypothalamus
| stimulates the production of certain hormones
58
thyroid hormone
thyroid
| regulates growth, development, metabolic rate
59
what is the function of the endocrine system
controlling the timing and number of hormones released
60
what directs the activity of the pituitary gland
the hypothalamus
61
what is the function of the urinary system
processing and exretion of fluids from the body
62
what is the primary organ of the urinary system
the kidney
63
what is the function of the kidney (3)
1. filter metabolic waste from the blood
2. regulate electrolyte and fluid balance in the blood
3. influence on fluid balance by the kidneys affects blood volume in the cardiovascular system, resulting in changes in blood flow rate and blood pressure
64
what are the functional units of the kidneys
nephrons
65
What are the regions of the kidneys
```
renal corex (outer layer)
renal medulla (inner layer)
```
66
describe the structure within the renal cortex
the entire kidney is made up of nephrons, which are little triangle portions
the top is the cortex, the inner part is the medulla
the cortex has arteries and veins coming in/out. They connect to the glomerular capsule. This is where they drop off wastes.
The filtrate runs through all the tubules (at one point dropping into the medulla) and then leaves either goes back into the blood through the interlobular vein or as urine through the renal papilla
67
what is a glomerulus
a network of capillaires where blood pushes water, sal, glucose, amino acids, and urea from the blood
think- waste drop off point
68
what is the stuff leaving the blood through the walls of the capillaries
filtrate
69
Where is filtrate collecteed?
The bowman's capsule around the glomerulus
70
Where does filtrate go after bowman's capsule
a crazy looking tube (proximal tubule) then into the medulla
71
what is the purpose of the proximal tubule
to reabsorb anyhhing the blood could still use like glucose
72
What happens after the proximal tubule reachss the medulla?
the remaining filtrate flows through th Loop of Henle, then through the distal tubule and back into the cortex trhough the collecting tubule
73
What is the purpose of the distal tubule
more reabsoprtion
74
what causes tubular reabsorption
osmotic pressure
75
when does filtrate become urine
when filtrate passes through the collecting ducts through the medulla
76
Where do collecting ducts dump urine
the renal pelvis of the kidney (the center of the kidney)
77
Where does urine go after the renal pelvis?
ureter then the bladder then urethra
78
how much liquid can th ebladder fold
400-800mL
79
what arteries/veins come to/from the kidney
renal artery brings blood in
| renal vein takes blood out
80
what controls the diffusion of particular solutions to maintain water balance
the nephron of the kidneys
81
what three metabolic byproducts do the kidneys keep in check
urea, uric acid, and creatinine
82
what determines the water levels in our body
kidneys
pay attention to the osomotic pressure to see how much NaCL there is. Sodium causes Chloride to follow, affecting the osmotic pressure at the reabsorption parts.
83
how does dehydration affect kidneys
dehydration causes reduced blood volume, since blood is mostly water
this lowers blood pressure
84
how do the kidneys work with the heart
when blood pressure is out of normal range and it is not caused by hydration, the kidneys increase blood volume by allowing more absorption of filtrate
then, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
85
what is renin
an enzyme released by the kidneys when reduced blood pressure is detected by baroreceptors in the aorta an cartoid arteries
renin creates angiotesnsin I from angiotennsiongen prouced in the liver
86
What converts Angiotensin I to angiotensin II
an enxyme produced by the liver and kidneys calle ACE
87
What is Angiotensin II
a secretion that acts to restore blood volume and blood presure by cocnstricting blood vessels, stimulating thirst, and stimulating production of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
88
what is aldosterone
a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland that increases reabsorption of sodium ions. This leads to an increase in reabsorption of cholide ions and water.
89
What is antidiuretic hormone
a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that increases the amound of water able to be reabsorbed from the cleevting duct. The effects of aldosterone and and antidiuretic hormone are to increased blood volume while decreasing water lost from the body in urine.
90
Give the steps of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
1. The liver makes Angiotensinogen
2. The kidneys make renin, which changes Angiotensinogen to Angiotensin I
3. The liver and kidneys make ACE, which changes Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
4. Angiotensin II constricts blood vessels, stimulates thirst and triggers production of Aldosterone and Antidiuretic Hormone.
5. Adrenal Gland secretes Aldosterone. This increases reabsorption of sodium ions. Pituitary gland secretes Antidiuretic hormone, which increases the amount of water able to be reabsorbed in collecting ducts.
91
what is the tube that delivers urine to the urinary bladder
ureter
92
where are the glomeruli and bowmans capsule located
in the renal cortex
93
what are antigens
things the body percieves as foreign
94
what are pathogens
things that are dangerous towards the body
95
what are allergies
the immune system's response to forgein agents that are not pathogens
96
what is the first line of defense
innate immune system, a collection of non-specific barriers
97
what are external parts of the innate immune system
hair, skin, bacterial floramucus membranes, antimicrobial substances like mucus tears and saliva
98
what is the second line of defense
still the innate immune system, meaning theyre not specifc but these are internal where the first line is external
this include inflammation, production of interferon, and ingestiong of pathogens by phagocytes
99
what is a macrophage
- a large white blood cell that ingests foreign material - - puts the antigens on it's cell membrane to alet patrolling T cells
- also send out ctyokines to alert other cells of danger
100
what is the name of a macrophage with antigens on its cell membrane
antigen-presenting cells
101
what cells can function as antigen-presenting cells
macrophages, Dendritic cells and b cells
102
what can cells produce to trigger immune responses
histamine
| causes capillary permeabiliy and vasodilation
103
what does histamine do
causes capillary permeabiliy and vasodilation
| makes it easier for white blood cells to leak from capillaries into the area needed fro deffense
104
what is inflammation
the resulting redness, swlling, heat and pain in an area of defense by innate immunity
105
What are interferons
proteins secreted by some cells that can inhibit virus replication
106
what part of the immune system:
| skin, hair, mucus, earwax, secretions, normal flora
external innate immune system
| nonspecific response
107
what part of the immune system:
| antimicrobials, inflammation, interferons, complement proteins, NK lymphocytes, phagocytes (including APC)
internal innate immune system (non specific response)
108
what part fo the immune system:
cytotoxic T cells
killing pathogen
reaction
adaptive immune system
(respond to specific antigens)
109
what part of the immune system:
| b-cells produce antibodies
prevention
adaptive immune system
(respodns to different antigens)
110
how is the adaptive immune system activated?
activated by antigen and helper t cells
| helper t cells are activated by APC
111
which reacts faster: the innate immune system or the adaptive immune system?
the innate, because it doesnt need prior knowledge. The adaptive needs to learn and adapt before acting. Each defense is unique, soi it's slower but once it knows the defense it happens faster in subsequent times
112
what is the body's third line of defense?
the adaptive immune system, a collection of cellular responses triggered by the internal presence of specific antigens
113
what types of cells are considered lymphocytes
NK cells, b-cells, t-cells (helper t-cells, cytotoxic t-cells, and mempry cells)
114
where do t cells mature
the thymus
115
what three types of cells can t cell become
helper t cells
cytotoxic t cells
memory cells
116
What do helper t-cells do? What is their biggest role?
secrete interleukins, which are chemical messengers that trigger action of other cells. iggest role is to activate b cells.
117
what do cytotoxic t cells do
attack forgein cells which summoned my the interleukins from helper t cells
118
what do memory cells do
respond quickly to antigens upon re-exposure, so quickly that the body is immune from the pathogen the second time
119
what is cell mediated immunity
a type of adaptve immunity in whcih t lymphocytes attack parasitic worms, cancer cells, transplated tissues, or cells that contain pathgoens. uses t cells.
120
What are b cells
lymphocytes that mature in bone marrow and make antibodies in response to antigens
121
what are plasma cells
rapidly dividng bc ells that secrete antibodies
122
what is anotehr word for antibodies
immunoglobulins
123
what are antibodies
blood proteins that have a certain part that fits to antigens. They tag them for descrution
124
What is antibody-mediated immunity
the process of b-cells secreting antibodies and takggin antigens for destruction
125
Give the hierarchy of immunity
immunity > adaptive or innate
adaptive > nature or articial
natural > passive (maternal) or active (infection
artificial > passive (antibody transfer) or active (immunization)
126
difference between active and passive immunity
passive is through placenta or breastmilk, it is passed to you
active is given to you through an infection or a vaccine
127
describe osteocytes
kind of look like dendrites
| they maintain bone by sensing physical stress
128
describe osteobytes
cells that make bone.
| look like cuboidal cells.
129
describe osteoclasts
look like big blobs
| break down bone
130
mineral reabsorption
performed by osteoclasts, remove calcium from bone so it can enter bloodstream
131
why do we reabsorp calcium
neurons need it for communication and ca in blood is involved in inhibitng muscle contraction, also involved in blood clotting
132
what does hypocalcemia cause (deficit in plasma ca)
tetany, an involuntary continuous contraction of skeletal muscle
133
what happens when too much ca is removed from bone
osteporosis, porous weak bones
134
what is mineralization
performed by osteoblasts, a process that deposits hydroxyapatite in the collagen matrix in bone
135
what does collagen do
gives bone flexibility while minerals around the collagen gives the bone strength
136
brittle bone disease
aka osteogenesis imperfecta
| genetic disease affecting the collagen matrix that also causes brittle, weak bones
137
how is compact bone organize
in long, concentric layers called lamella like growth rings of a tree
between each lamellae are pockets called lacunae where bone cells reside
miscroscopic tunnels run from each lacunae for communication. These are called canaliculi.
Groups of lamellae are osteon
138
Describe the canals in the bone
the canal in an osteon is called a central (haversion) canal and contains nerves and blood vessels.
It runs parralle to the osteon. Perpendicular to the end of the osteon is the perforating (Volkmann's) canals
139
What is on the outside of the bone
periosteum
140
What is in the center of bone where the ceentral canal
trabecuale of spongy bone
141
where is bone marrow
in the spongy bone in the center of bones
142
red bone marrow
site of blood formation and play a part in the immune system
143
yellow bone marrow
medullary cavity of adult long bones
| made of adipose
144
what is the largest bone
femur
145
what are the bone categories
long bone, short bone, flat bone, and irregular bone
146
sutures
the joints of flat bones
147
what makes articulation of the skeleton possible
soft tissue : cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and periosteium
148
what do tendons and ligaments attach to
periosteum
149
what protects joints
hyaline cartilage
150
osteoarthritis
inflammation in a joint from break down of cartilage
151
rheumatoid arthritis
autoimmune recation that causes joint inflammation and pain
152
epiphyseal plate
hyaline cartilage in long bones where bone elongation happens
aka growth plate
153
epiphyseal line
line that develops when a eiphyseal plate are stops producing cartilage
154
achondroplastic dwarfism
the result of epiphyseal plate stoping growth prematurely
155
what are the two major divisons of the skeleton
axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
156
axial skeleton
sjull, thoraci cage (risbs and sternum) vertebrate
157
three types of vertebrae
cerevical
thoracic
lumbar
158
upper arm bone
humerus
159
thumb side arm bone
radius
160
pinky side arm bone
ulna
161
wrist bones
carpals
162
hand bones
metacarpals
163
fingers/toes
phalanges
164
hip bone
pelvis
165
inner hip vertebrae stuff
sacrum
166
tail bone
coccyx
167
front shin bone
tibia
168
back shin bone
fibular
169
ankle bone
calcaneus
170
foot/ankle bones
tarsals
171
top of foot bones
meta tarsals
172
what does the manndible atriculate with
temproal bone
173
which bones have sinues
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary
174
what are the tiniest bones
auditory ossicles in the middle ear
175
what is the only bone that is not connected to the rest of the skeleton
hyoid bone, where your tongue and larynx attach
176
what is the atals
the first cervial vertebrae
aka C1
allos the head to nod
177
what is the axis
the secnod cervical vertebrae because it allows the head to pivot
178
what is between vertebrae
intervertebral discs made of cartilage
179
sacrum
five vertebrae fused together and nesteled inside of the hip bones
180
what is in the pectroal girdle
r and l scapula and clivcles
181
blood vessels in bone are where
in the central canal, volkmanns canal, and meudllary cavity
182
four types of small molecules
sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides
183
three classes of macromolecules:
polysaccaharides, proteins, and nucleic acids
184
bonds that hold sugars together
covalent bonds
185
dehydration reaction
forming a covalent bondy by displacing a water molecule
| akak condensation reaction
186
noncovalent bonds
hydrogen and ionic bonds
form spontaneously an dbreak easily
give macromolecules shape, structure, and function
187
polysaccharides/sugars/carbs
sources of energy
188
startch
polysaccaride used as energy in plants
189
what is carb energy stored as
glycogen (polymers of glucose)
190
hydrolysis reaction
chemical reaction that converst a polymer of glycogen into momenrs of glucose
191
chitin and cellulose
polysaccahrid used to provide a support skelton to plants and animals respecitvely
192
what are proteins made of
amino acids
| 20 differnt kind
193
how are aminos bonded otgether
through dehydration reaction to form a covalent bond
| this covalent bond is called a peptide bond
194
4 structures of proteins
1. primary- phone cord
2. secondary- coiled phone cord
3. tertiary- bundeld up phone cord
4. quarternary- 2+ phone cords bundled otgether
195
how do enzymes work
by reducting activation energy
196
functions of proteins
enzymes
strucural
transporters
antibodies
197
two types of nucleic acids
DNA
| RNA
198
DNA
double helix of nucleic acids
| stores herediatry info in a cell
199
what is RNA made of
ribonulcelotides, which are ribose sugar + trio of phosphates + nitrogenous base
200
differenc ebetween DNA and RNA
DNA- G,C,A,T
| RNA- G, C, A, U
201
RNa function
converting info stored in the DNA into proteins
202
why are lipids not macromolcules?
because they are not monomers linked together. They are grouped together because of how they react to water
203
function of lipids
phospholipid cell membrane
energy stores (stores 5x as carbs)
steroids
204
what are phospholipids and tricglycerides mde of
fatty acids + glycerol
205
glycerol
a type of sugar
206
what are the covalent bonds in DNA called
phosphodiester bonds
207
DNA bases
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine
208
where is DNA store
nucleus
| minor amount on mitochondria
209
genome
complete set of genetic information
210
how many chromosome doe adults have
46 (23 pairs)
211
genes
sequences of DNA that encode something the cell can use
212
types of RNA
tRNA, rRNA, mRNA
213
codons
triplets/base pairs that each code for an amino acid
214
genetic code
set of 64 codons that specifcy the 20 amino acids used to make proteins
215
simpel steps of DNA to protein
DNA > RNA > prtien
216
the complimentary strand of DNA makes what
the messenger RNA
217
what does the mRNA do
exits the nucleus and binds to a ribosome, where it tells it how to make a protein
218
what does tRNA do
brings in the correct amino acids to the ribosomes
219
mitosis
cell division in eukaryotes taht produces two daughter cells, each with the same chromone number as the parent cell
220
what happens during the synthesis phase of the cell yclce
replaction of chromosomes
221
chromatid
during mitosis, when the chromosomes duplicate but stay attached to each other
222
phenotype
physical expression of a trait
223
alleles
variants of a gene (little g or big G in the punnet square)
224
homozygous
having the same alleles
225
heterozygous
having different alleles
226
genotypes
the name for allele pairs
227
diploid
cells that conain two sets of chromosomes
228
meiosis
specialized cell division used to create gametes
229
what is the result of meiosis
4 haploid cells
230
monohybrid cross
a cross between parents heterozygous at one specifc gene
231
dihybfried cross
a cross between parents heterozygous at two specic genese
232
incomplete dominance
when phenotype is intermediate between parents (hair color)
233
codominanc
when two alleles are equally dominant (blood tpye)
234
epistasis
type of gene interaction in which the phenotype of a trait is the result of one gene's alels affecting the allele's of another independently inhertied gene
ex/ a lab who has the E/e gene and is yellow even if it has dominant genes for a black coat
235
electron oribals
2 per orbital
| s (2), p (6), d(18), f (32)
236
atomaic mass
number under element
| sum of protons and neutrons
237
atomic number
number of protons in one atom
| top number on period table
238
how do you know how may valence electrons something has
```
the row (period) on the periodic table
ex: 2nd row, 2 oribtals max of 8 electrons- 6 valence
```
239
how to determine element identity
of protons
240
isotopes
versisons of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
ex: carbon- 12= 6p, 6n
carbon-14= 6p, 8n
241
ion
when the number of protons and electrons are not equal, giving an atom a charge
242
cation
positively charged ion
243
anion
negatively charged ion
244
ionic bond
results from the attractive between two oppositely charged ions when one atom is strong enough to "steal" elctrons from the other atom
245
covalent bond
sharing electrons
246
which atom gets the electron in an ionic bond
the one closer to having 8 get it
the one with less than 4 loses
if similar, covalent bonds happen
247
boiling point
temperature at which a substance boils, changing itstate from liquid to gas
248
specific heat capacity
measure of the amount of energy needed to change the temp of 1 gram of substance by 1 degree celcius
249
intensive properties
physical properties that are independent of the amount of substnace present
luster, conductivity, malleability, density)
can be used for substance identification
250
extensive properties
characteristics dependent on the size of the sample
length, volume, mass, energy
cannot be used for substance identification
