Science-Part 1 Flashcards
four basic types of tissues
epithelial, connective, nervous, muscular
basic parts of a cell
nucleus, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, (+ organelles_
mitochondria function
energy production
what do skeletal muscles contain a lot of?
mitochondria because of energy neede for movement
what organelles work together to build proteins?
ribosomes, rough ER, and golgi
function of cell wall
structural support and protection for cell
cholorplasts
uses photosynthesis to produce ATP
cytoskeleton
aids in the transferring of materials and movements of the whole cell
golgi
processes proteins
lysosomes
aids in digestion and recycling of old cell materials
nucleus
holds all genetic information such as DNA, and conducts the building of ribosomes
plasma membrane
maintains cell’s environment through the process of selective permeability
ribosome
synthesizes proteins
rough ER
synthesizes and processes proteins in the cell
smooth ER
synthesizes and processes lipids in the cell
vacuoles
serves as storage
front vs back
anterior/posterior
toward head vs toward fee
superior/inferior
toward or away from structure
proximal/distal
toward mid line vs away from midline
medial/lateral
bottom of foot
plantar surface of foot
top of foot
dorsum of foot
palm/bottom of hand
palmar surface of hand
top of hand
dorsum of hand
front/back division plane
coronal or frontal plane
top and bottom division plane
traverse or cross-sectional plane
left and right division plane
sagittal or median
respiratory system’s main function
to perform the critical tasks involved in transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into the body’s cells and removing carbon dioxide from the body’s cells (exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide)
the process of brining oxygen into the lungs
ventilation or breathing
order air goes into the body
nasal opening > nasal cavity > throat > trachea > r/l bronchus > r/l lung > bronchioles > alveoli (look like clusters of grapes)
why are alveoli important?
site of gas exchange because of aqueous surfactant (medium for gas exchange and keeps lung from collapsing on itself by maintaining surface tension)
Where is the heart located?
pleural cavity on the left side, causing the right lung to be a little bigger
lobes of the right kung
3: superior, middle, inferior
lobes of the left lung
2: superior and inferior
lung lobes are divided into what?
bronchopulmonary segments. each segment receives air from its own bronchus and receives blood from its own artery
what covers the lobes of lungs?
double membrane called the pleura and then surrounded by pleural fluid
what cavity are the lungs in
thoracic cavity
describe how the heart works with the respiratory system
sends blood low in O and high in CO2 to the lungs. The blood picks up O and drops off the CO2. Happens by capillaries of the circulatory system interacting with the alveoli. The blood loaded with O goes back to the heart and is pumped around the body. When the body uses the O, then the deoxy blood goes back to the heart to start the process all over.
How does gas exchange happen in the lungs?
diffusion, a passive transport method
what affects diffusion in the lungs?
surface area and distance between solutions
where is the highest and lowest concentration of oxygen in the lungs
highest- alevoli from recently inhaled air
lowest- blood coming in the from the pulmonary vessels
where are the highest and lowest levels of carbon dioxide in the lungs?
highest- capillaries
lowest- alveoli
what allows ventilation to occur?
a combination of muscle action and negative pressure
diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract and increase volume in lungs. Relaxing those muscles push air out.
what is the inhalation of air called?
periodic inspiration
what is the expulsion of air called?
expiration
what is the tidal volume
the amount of air breathed in and out of the lungs
what is the residual capacity
a small amount of air rich in CO2 that stays trapped in alveoli. It mixes with O brought in through inspiration
What center of the brain controls breathing? How?
Medulla oblongata, by measuring CO2 and blood ph levels
What happens when blood pH decreases?
respiration rates increase
What does asthma cause?
airways narrow, resulting in mucus buildup. Makes it difficult to inhale and exhale normal amounts of air.
How do environmental pollutants impede lung function?
by damaging cilia, causing emphysema, allergies, and inflammation
what is the main responsibility of the cardiovascular system?
movement of blood and lymph around the body, which allows for nutrient distribution, waste removal, communication and protection
what is the heart made of and how many chambers does it have?
made of muscle, has 4 chambers
what are the upper chambers of the heart called?
atria
what are the lower chambers of the heart called?
ventricles
where is the aorta?
big one at the top, right behidn pulmonary artery
what transports blood away from the heart?
arteries (thicker)
what transports blood towards the heart?
veins (thinner)
What are capillaries made of?
A single layer of endothelium that connects arteries and veins to tissues
what does the lymphatic system do?
part of the cardiovascular system, circulates and filters interstitial fluid between cells and eventually drains into the circulatory system
what are the two loops in the circulatory system?
pulmonary and systole
What does the pulmonary loop do?
carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs where it is oxygenated and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium
What does the systemic loop do?
Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body, returning deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
What are the two cycles of heart contractions?
systole and diastole
What is systole
contraction of heart muscles
What is diastole
relaxation of heart mucles
Give the steps of the heart cycle
ventricles contract (ie ventricular systole), the atrioventricular valves close and make a lub sound, the empty ventricles are filled with blood pushed out during atrial systole. At the same time, semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary arteries close to prevent blood from falling back into the ventricles, making a “dub” sound.
What controls the pace of heart contractions?
Sinoatrial node, by sending out electrical signals
What is in blood plasma?
nutrients, hormones, antibodies, and other immune proteins
Describe red blood cells
contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
What do white blood cells do> (general answer) What are the two main lineages?
defend against pathogens. leukocytes and lymphocytes
What do lymphocytes do?
They stay in the lymph nodes and help filter interstitial fluid to provide surveillance for the immune system.
What is lymph
basically blood plasma with the red blood cells removed
Where does lymph eventually go
drains back into the large veins leading to the heart
Where are lymph nodes located?
oral, nasal, and genital regions were foreign objects can enter the body
basic definition of heart attack
blood supply to heart is interrupted (aka myocardial infarction)
basic definition of stroke
blood supply to brain is interrupted (aka CVA, cerebrovascular accident)
basic definition of aneurysm
a ballooning and weakened area in an artery
basic definition of atherosclerosis
build up of fats, cholesterol, plaque, etc in walls of arteries (aka cardiovascular disease)
basics of arrhythmias
irregular heartbeat, can be too fast or too slow. Electrical impulses of the heart don’t work properly.
basics of hypertension
condition where force of blood against the artery walls is too high (aka high blood pressure)
what is the vavle to the aorta
aortic valve
what artery leaves the left ventricle
aorta
give the steps of blood coming into the heart
superior/inferior vena cava > right atrium > tricuspid valve > right ventricle > pulmonary valve. > pulmonary artery…. pulmonary veins > left atrium > mitral valve > left ventricle > aortic valve > aorta
what makes up the tricuspid valve?
septal cusp, posterior cusp, anterior cusp
what is the divider in the middle of the heart called?
interventricular septum
what is the muscle making up the heart called?
papillary muscle
what is the muscle making up the heart called?
papillary muscle
what is the main function of the gastrointestinal system?
break down food for absorption and distribution of nutrients to the rest of the body
what controls the smooth. muscle involved in mechanical digestion in the gastrointestinal system?
parasympathetic nervous system
what absorbs digested nutrients?
blood vessels along the stomach and small and large intestines
where does mechanical digestion being?
in the mouth by chewing
How does saliva help digestion?
lubricates the food, provides amylase and lipase to initiate the chemical digestion of starch and lipids
What is a bolus
food packaged into small parecels to be digested
what is deglutition
swallowing
What are the next steps after chewing?
bolus passes through pharynx, epiglottis closes the tracheal opening so food can not enter respiratory system, food passes into espohagus. Peristalsis moves the bolus through the grastric sphincted into the stomach
What is peristalsis
constractions of muscle in the esophagus. responsible for moving food past the gastric spinchter into the stomach
What is the purpose of the gastric sphincter?
prevents reflux of food back into the esophagus
What is the stomach made of?
smooth muscle
what is chyme
food broken down even further by stomach muscles
what are the three main secretions of the stomach
pepsinogen, mucus, and hydrocholric acid
what does mucus do in the stomach?
lines it
what does hydro choloric acid do
creates the acidic environemnet, converts pepsinogen to pepsin
what does pepsin (aka pepsinogen) do
helps digest proteins in the acidic environement
Where does chyme go after it leaves the stomach?
small intestine
What is the first part of the small intestine? What is its purpose?
Dudoenum. Neutralizes chyme by bicarbonate in pancreatic secreations
What three things neutralize chyme?
- bicarbonate in pancreating secretions
- alkaline bile jucies from the gallbladder
- “brush border” enzymes
What are the brush border enzymes
proteases, lactases, disaccharidases, and bicarbonate
What do villi and microvillie in the small intestine do? Where are they mostly found?
found mostly in the ileum. They absorb polar-digested nutrients into blood, lipids into lacteals as chylomicrons, and vitamin B12
How do blood-carrying nutrients pass from the small intestine to the liver? What happens?
Pass through the hepatic portal duct. This allow liver enzymes to deaminate amino acids, convert ammonia to urea, metabolzie consumer toxins, and store glucose as glycogen.
How do blood-carrying nutrients pass from the small intestine to the liver? What happens?
Pass through the hepatic portal duct. This allow liver enzymes to deaminate amino acids, convert ammonia to urea, metabolzie consumer toxins, and store glucose as glycogen.
Where does food go after the stomach? give steps
enters dudoenum of small intestine > passes through illeum of small inestine > passes through cecum > into the large intestine (aka colon) > rectum > anus
Where does food go after the stomach? give steps
enters dudoenum of small intestine > passes through illeum of small inestine > passes through cecum > into the large intestine (aka colon) > rectum > anus
Where is the vermiform appendix?
Projected off the cecum, which is the junction between small and large intestine
Generally speaking, what does the small and large intestine absorb?
Small- water and nutrients
large- remaining water and salt, and vitamin K. Exposes waste to bacterial fermentation
What does Ghrelin do?
Induces hunger
What does leptin do?
sensation of satiety
what does insulin do?
induces cellular uptake of glucose
what does glucagon
stimualtes breakdown of stored glyogen
what does glucagon
stimulates breakdown of stored glycogen
What hormones are involved in digestion?
ghrelin, leptin, insulin, and glucagon were mentioned in the book
What are enzymes?
proteins produced by the body that catalyze and speed up the breakdown of food so that nutrients are available for the body
What is bile?
NOT AN ENZYME. Bile is a chemical that aids in digestion, but not an enzyme. The liver makes and releases bile into the small intestine to help break down fats.
What enzyme is found in the mouth? What does it do?
Salivary amylase, breaks down starches
What enzyme is found in the stomach? What does it do?
Pepsin, breaks down proteins
What enzymes are found in the pancreas? What do hey do? (3)
- Pancreatic amylase- breaks down starch
- trypsin- breaks down proteins
- lipase- breaks down fat
All of these are created int he pancreas and released into the small intestine
What enzymes are found in the pancreas? What do hey do? (3)
- Pancreatic amylase- breaks down starch
- trypsin- breaks down proteins
- lipase- breaks down fat
All of these are created int he pancreas and released into the small intestine
What enzymes are found in the small intestine? What do they do?
brush border enzymes (proteases, lactase)
Continue to break down molecules. Break down carbohydrates into monosaccharides
What enzymes are found int the large intestine? What do they do?
None, nothing
What enzymes are found int the large intestine? What do they do?
None, nothing
what is the main function of the neuromuscular system?
controls involuntary and voluntary movement
what makes up the neuromuscular system?
nerves and muscles
What are nerves
long bundles of axons that transmit signals from the central nervous system
Describe signals moving through the nervous system
start as electrical impulses at the end of nerve cells > travels along the axon > transmitted to the next cell using chemical neurotransmitters secreted into the synapse from the axon terminal
What is the end part of a nerve called?
axon terminal
What is the stuff wrapped around the long part of a nerve
myelin sheath
What are the fingery things at the end of a nerve cell
dendrites
What nerves send messages to the central nervous system?
sensory (afferent) nerves
What nerves send messages to the muscles?
motor (effernt) nerves
What controls involuntary actions?
Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system controls things such as heart rhythm, digestion, and breathing
What are the three type of muscles?
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
What makes up muscles?
Long myofibrils made of sarcomere units. Sarcomere is made up of long strands of proteins called actin and mysoin
What is the difference between actin and myosin?
Actin is a thinner fiber. Myosin is a thicker one. Actin is usually ont he outside.
What is needed for a muscle to move?
A concerted effort by many nerve fibers connected to the muscle fiber and ATP to powe the contraction
How do skeletal muscles contract?
Nervous system sends a signal to the muscle > actin and myosin proteins slide past each other> either contract or relax depending. These two motions are responsible for all muscle movement.
what is the purpose of the male reproductive system
generate male gametes (aka sperm) and deliver them to the female reproductive system
what are the major components of the male reproductive system? (7)
penis, vas deferens, urethra, prostate, seminal vesicles, testis, scrotum
What is the primary reproductive organ in males?
Testes
What produces seprm?
Seminiferous tubules within th testes
What is the purpose of the scrotum? What is the purpose of the prostate and seminal vesicles?
scrotum- lowers body temperature during sperm production
prostate & seminal vesicles- produce fluids necessary for lubricating and nourishing the sperm
What do the urethra, vas deferens, and penis do?
Form the conduit through which sperm is ejected
What is the vas deferens?
The tube from testes to urethra through the penis
What is the primary purpose of the female reproductive system
generating female gametes (eggs) and incubating the fetus during pregnancy
What makes up the female reproductive system? (5)
ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina
what releases the egg?
The graafian follicle in the ovary in response to hormones
where do eggs embed themselves when fertilized?
the uterine wall aka the endometrium
What does the placenta do
connects the parents blood supply, nourishes the fetus and removes wastes
Which hormones initiate puberty?
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Lutenizing Hormone (LH
What does LH do in males?
signals testes to produce more testosterone
testosterone + FSH stimulate the production of sperm cells
What does FSH do in females?
Signals the ovaries to produce more estrogen
What does estrogen do in females?
Causes the egg to mature in the graafian follcile. Causes the endometrium to thicken.
What does LH do in females?
A surge of LH causes the developing egg to be released
What is a graafian follicle called when an egg has been released. What happens next?
Called a corpus luteum
Produces a large amount of progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the fertilized egg
what is the plasma membrane made of
phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins
four basic types of tissues
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
what does epithelial tissues do?
covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, and serves as a protective barrier
what does connective tissue do?
connects other tissues to each otehr and serves to bind and support body parts
what does muscle tissue do
moves the body and its contents by contraction
what does nervous tissue do
recevies stimuli from the internal or external environment and communicates through electrical impulses with the rest of the body
what is in the upper respiratory tract?
nose, nasal cavity, paranasal, sinuses, oral cavity, pharynx, glottis, and larynx
What is in the lower respiratory tract?
trachea, lungs (bronchus, bronchioles, alveoli)
what comes after the pharynx?
pharynx > glottis (epiglottis covering) > larynx > trachea
What is the total lung capacity?
The amount of air in the lungs after a maximum inspiration (aka deep breath)
What is the vital capacity?
The amount of gas that can be exhaled after a deep breath
What is the residual volume
the amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration
How do you get the total lung capacity?
vital capacity + residual volume
what is surfactant
a lipid mixture secreted by cells in the lungs, which reduces surface tension and prevents alveoli from sticking together
what is lung compliance? what does it depend on?
a measure of the ease of expanding the lungs. depends on the the elasticity of the lung tissue and the aleveolar surface tension
What is empjysema?
Destruction of elastic lung tissue, resulting in greater tha normal expansion of the lungs but poor recoil
What diseases cause low lung complaince?
Asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer
What genetic condition can impair lung compliance?
cystic fibrosis
Recessive gene causes surfactant to become sticky
what is cardiac tissue called
myocardium
what is the sac around the heart called
pericardium
erythrocytes
aka blood cells
what are platelets responsible for
blood clotting
where is the sinoatrial node located
in the upper wall of the right atrium
where does the impulse go after leaving the sinoatrial node
to the antrioventricular node and then travels down the atrivoentricular bundle and finally the purkinje fibers, causing the ventricles to contract
Which hormones affect the heart
epinephrine and norepinephrine
what is average blood reading
120/70
what is a piece of plaque or clotted blood traveling through vessels
embolus
what are the five steps in digestion?
- ingestion - taking in food
- digestion- breakdwon food
- peristalsis- movement of food through GI tract
- absorption of nutrients
- elimination of wastes
what are rugae
folds in the stomach that increase the holding capacity of the stomach to about 1 liter
what cells secrete pepsinogen
chief cells
what cells secrete hydrochloric acid
parietal cells
what cells help protect the lining of the stomact against acid
goblet cells- secrete mucus
how long is the small intestine
18feet
what are the three regions of the small intestine
duodenum, jejunem, and ileum
what is the sphincter at the end of the stomach
pyloric sphincter
what makes up the large intestine?
cecum , colon, rectum, and anal canal
what is the projection on the cecum?
the appendx
What are the four sections of the colon?
ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
why is bacterial fermentation in the colon important?
produces vitamins to be asborbed, like vitamin k
what are the two divisons of the nervous system
central nervous CNS
peripheral nervous PNS
what is in the CNS
brain and spinal cord
what is in the PNS
network of spinal nerves carrying information towards and away from the brain
INCLUDES AUTONOMIC DIVISIONS
somactic division of the nervous system
=voluntary stuff
whats the difference between dendrites and axons
dendrites receive impulses, axons pass on impulses
Which direction do all nerve impulses travel?
From dendrites down the axon
What happens when a nerve impulse reaches the axon temrinal?
Releases chemical neurotransmitters at the synapse
what are spinal nerves
bundles of nerve fibers (both axons and dendrites) that can carry both afferent and efferent impulses
efferent vs afferent
efferent = motor afferent = sensory
which division of the nervous system controls reflexes
autonomic
what is a muscle strain
stretching or tearing of the muscle
what is a muscle sprain
injuray to the accompanying ligaments and tendons of a muscle
what is a ligamennt
a tough connective tissue that attaches bone to bone
what is a tendon
a tough connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone
what is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
aka ALS
aka Lou Gehrig’s disease
motor neurons die leading to loss of voluntary muscle movement
what is muscular dystropy
a group of genetic disorders where abnormal genes interfere with the production of proteins needed to form healthy muscles.
Affects both voluntary and involuntary muscles
Where do sperm mature
epidiymis
Which gland controls the endocrine system
the pituitary gland
what does FSH cause in females
secondary sex characteristics
the development of a follicle, whcich then secretes estrogen
which hormone is responsible for secondary sex characteristics in males
testosterone
what is the main organ of the integumentary system
the skin
What are the functions of the integumentary system? (6)
- removes metabolic waste
- synthesizes vitamin D
- communication
- senses
- provides protection
- main organ of temperature regulation
what are the three layers of skin
epidermis, dermis, and hypo dermis
what is the epidermis made of
keratinized stratified squamous epitherlial tissue
what is the dermis made up of
connective tissue
are there blood vessels in the epidermis? The dermis?
the epidermis is avascular
the dermis contains capillaries and small blodd vessels
what is another name for the dermis
cutaneous layer
think “cut” because you bleed from this layer
what is the hypodermis made of?
loose connective tissue (areolar and adipose)
Does the hypodermis have blood vessels?
yes it is very vascular
What is under the hypodermis
muscle
what structures are in the dermis?
blood vessels, nerves, sensory receptors, nails, hair follciles
What supplies a hair follicle with oil?
sebaceous glands around the follicles
what is oil from the sebaceous glands called? what does it do?
sebum, moisturizes hair and skin thus keeping the keratin flexible and water-resistant
what other gland produces sebum?
ceruminous glands in the ear canal
what is ear wax?
aka cerumen
sebum + dead epithelial cells
what is the apocrine sweat gland
sweat glands aka scent glands
release sweat, but it could act as a pheromone because it’s higher in fatty acids
apocrine sweat smells like bo oncce bacteria use up the nutrients
what is th eeccrine sweat gland (aka merocrine sweat gland)
the more commonly known sweat gland
releaes sweat to the external surface of the epidermis
what is the role of sweat
thermoregulations
what two things are used for temperature regulation
perspiration and diameter changes of blood vessels
where are thermoreceptors found
in both the hypothalamus and the skin
what is the body’s thermostat
hypothalamus
what happens when body temp is too high
cutaneous vasodilation, sweating
- increases blood vessel in diameter to allow more blood flow near the surface of the body, so heat can release
- if thats not enough, then sweat production. As it dries, the body cools from evaporation
what happens when body temp is too low
shivering, cutaneous vasoconstriction
- arrector pili muscles tense. The contraction generates heat.
- vessels contract to reduce the amount of blood traveling at the surface, decreasing the heat loss at the skin
how is the integumentary system related to the immune system
it is part of the innate immune system
cerumen, hair, and mucus trap particles that can contain pathogens
what maintains the epidermal water barrier? what is the purpse?
sebum and keratin, prevents dehydration
how does the skin inhibit bacteria growth
lactic and fatty acids in sebum in sweat encourage a low pH which makes it difficult for bacteria to grow
how does the integumentary system help with excretion
you an lose mineral salts and urea through sweat
what sensory senstions does the integumentary system respond to
once in the skin like pressure, heat, and pain
