Science & History Flashcards
psychology
psychology
the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior
individual differences
individual differences
variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior
naive realism
naive realism
belief that we see the world precisely as it is
scientific theory
scientific theory
explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world
hypothesis
hypothesis
testable prediction derived from a scientific theory
confirmation bias
confirmation bias
tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them
belief perseverance
belief perseverance
tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
metaphysical claim
metaphysical claim
assertion about the world that is not testable
pseudoscience
pseudoscience
set of claims that seems scientific but isn’t
scientific scepticism
scientific skepticism
approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them
critical thinking
critical thinking
set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion
Six principles of scientific / critical thinking
1. Ruling out rival hypotheses (have important alternative explanations)
2. Correlation isn’t causation (A does not always cause B)
3. Falsifiability
4. Replicability
5. Extraordinary claims (require extraordinary evidence)
6. Occam’s razor – parsimony (logical simplicity – “shave off’’ complicated explanations)
correlation - causation fallacy
correlation–causation fallacy
error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other
variable
variable
anything that can vary
falsifiable
falsifiable
capable of being disproved
replicability
replicability
when a study’s findings are able to be dupli- cated, ideally by independent investigators
introspection
introspection
method by which trained observers carefully reflect and report on their mental experiences
structuralism
structuralism
school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic elements of psychological experience
functionalism
functionalism
school of psychology that aimed to under- stand the adaptive purposes of psychological characteristics
natural selection
natural selection
principle that organisms that possess adapta- tions survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other organisms
behaviourism
behaviorism
school of psychology that focuses on uncovering the general laws of learning by looking at observable behavior
cognitive psychology
cognitive psychology
school of psychology that proposes that thinking is central to understanding behavior
cognitive neuroscience
relatively new field of psychology that examines the relation between brain functioning and thinking
psychoanalysis
psychoanalysis
school of psychology, founded by Sigmund Freud, that focuses on internal psychological processes of which we’re unaware
evolutional psychology
evolutionary psychology
discipline that applies Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior
Early Modern Philosophy Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
French mathematician, physiologist, philosopher Rationalism - the criterion of the truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive Knowledge is from thought and reflection Challenged dogma by resolving to doubt everything “Cogito ergo sum” or “I think, therefore I am”
Rationalists (like Descartes) contend the way to knowledge is only through reason and thought; mind actively transforms sensory information
John Locke (1632-1702)
The human mind begins as a “tabula rasa” and we learn through experience Two sources of ideas from experience: 1. Sensation and 2. Reflection Simple knowledge builds Complex knowledge
Empiricists (like Locke) argue all knowledge is gained through experience; with emphasis on the method of using observation and sensory impressions to build knowledge
rationalist & empirical approaches
The type of work favoured by empiricists is empirical work. By definition, an empirical project is one that requires observation at some point.
The type of work favoured by rationalists is theoretical work, a theoretical project being defined as one that does not require observation at any stage (Kukla, 2001, pp 1-2).
Weber (1795 – 1878; Germany)
Used the two-point threshold method to show sensitivity to touch differed across different body areas – eg. tongue 1mm vs back 5cm
Used increases in weights to determine Just Noticeable Differences (JNDs); demonstrated judgements are relative
Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Humans have descended from animals by modification through principles of natural selection Change in religious and Cartesian thinking: no separation between man and animals Examination of emotions in humans and animals; observed universality of emotional expressions
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) (Germany)
Seen as the founder of experimental psychology “experimental introspection” • Began the first journal of Psychology: Philosophical Studies (1881). • Opened up first university based lab of psychology at University of Leipzig (1879)
Goal of Wundt’s research was to understand consciousness He confined experiments to immediate experience Claimed that “the events of mental life are known through introspection” attempted to use introspection scientifically sought to investigate the immediate experiences of consciousness, including sensations, feelings, volitions, apperception, and ideas. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zr7O41r8uEI
Edward Titchener (1867-1927)
Student of Wundt • Englishman who completed PhD • at Leipzig • Moved to US to head new Dept • of Psych at Cornell University Edward Titchener (1867-1927) Goal (like Wundt): to learn about the structure of the mind through analysing elementary conscious experience =Structuralism
Titchener’s Structuralism
Adapted Wundt’s methods, using “analytical introspection” to study the structures of the mind Elements of consciousness: sensation, images and affections (feelings) can be known by listing attributes Decline of structuralism partly due to criticisms of introspection as an experimental method
William James (1842-1910)
Functionalism - Father of modern psychology/industrial evolution
Opened small psychology lab at Harvard, but not a research scientist Functionalism: “What for” (i.e. function) of mind, NOT “What is” (i.e. structures) Consciousness evolved because it has a function—to help us in the struggle for survival ‘Principles of Psychology’ 1890 William James (1842-1910) AIM: To examine the purpose and functions of the mind Influenced by Darwin: behaviour can be understood in terms of its purpose Functionalism without analysing its mechanisms
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Pavlov influenced by Russian physiologist Sechenov who had worked with Wundt Studied function of conditioned reflexes Lead to the development of a theory of learning known as classical conditioning Classic example of pairing a bell (CS) and meat (UCS) to produce the conditioned response salivation
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
Performed systematic experiments on the learning process (Columbia University, USA) Studied S-R connections by observing the learned behaviour of cats in puzzle boxes http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=BDujDOLre-8 Law of Effect Animal research - Darwin
Behaviourism John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Behaviourist Manifesto (1913): * The rejection of introspection * Emphasis on objectivity * Prediction and control * Use of animals Environment was everything Watson’s behaviourism Described relationship between environment (stimulus) and behaviour (response) • Made claims about the importance of education over inherited characteristics and instincts • Study of Little Albert and the white rat demonstrated the view of phobias as conditioned fear responses
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Return to radical behaviourism • Skinner similarly emphasised • observation and control • Also argued that psychological • studies should only focus on • objective and measurable phenomena • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Skinnerian Behaviourism: All behaviour is determined by its consequences
Described relationship between environment (stimulus) and behaviour (response) • Made claims about the importance of education over inherited characteristics and instincts • Study of Little Albert and the white rat demonstrated the view of phobias as conditioned fear responses http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalysis
Founder of psychoanalysis: Emphasizes the role of unconscious processes
Theory of personality
Id – pleasure principle
Ego – reality principle
Superego – morality
Psychosexual stages of development
Some criticisms of Freud’s work: • Lack of falsifiability • Dogmatic, non-experimental approach • Definition of terms • Too much emphasis on sex as motivation Neo-Freudians: New Directions • Anna Freud and Melanie Klein applied psychoanalysis to children • Development of attachment theory (Bowlby & Ainsworth) • Karen Horney - emphasized cultural influences
Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology focuses on ‘wholes’ not parts or elements of experience, the “whole is more than the sum of the parts”
Interested in how we organise our perception of the world – as humans we tend to “fill in the blanks Köhler emphasised a “top-down” approach which aims to achieve closure and completion Principles of organization Figure / ground distinction Insight learning in chimpanzees
****Also this time Koffka 1846-1891
Piaget (1896-1980)
Vygotsky (1896-1934)
