Science And Communication Flashcards
What are the three ways of knowing
Authority
Reason
Experience
authority
whenever we accept the validity of information from a source that we judge to be an expert, then we are relying on authority as a source of our knowledge. an important aspect of the attitude of a critical thinker is the willingness to question authority. we learn important things from authority figures.
‘authorities’ are usually other scientists and experts but scientists don’t just automatically accept something is true as a reputable scientist said its true. scientists are guided by the motto ‘take nobody’s word of it: see it for yourself’
reason
we sometimes arrive at conclusions using logic and reason. the value of a logically drawn conclusion depends on the truth of the premises and it takes more than logic to determine whether the premises have merit.
the American pragmatist philosopher Charles Pierce pointed out another difficulty with the use of logic and reason it can be used to reach opposing conclusions. Peirce labeled the use of reason, and a developing consensus among those debating the merits of one belief over another, the a priori method for acquiring knowledge
a priori
beliefs are deduced from statements about what is thought to be true according to the rules of logic. a belief develops as a result of a logical argument before a person has direct experience with the phenomenon at hand.
this a priori method is favoured by metaphysical philosophers who could reason eloquently to reach some truth. the outcome of the a priori approach pierce argued is that philosophical beliefs go in and out of fashion with no real ‘progress’ toward truth.
empiricism
the process of learning things through direct observation or experience and reflection on those experiences. asking ‘empirical questions’ is an important part of scientific thinking. can be dangerous to rely on our experiences when determining the truth on a matter as they are necessarily limited and our interpretations of them can be influenced by what social psychologists call cognitive biases. social cognition biases can work together to distort the beliefs about and our interpretations of experiences In the world.
cognitive bias - confirmation bias
a tendency to seek and pay special attention to information that supports one’s beliefs while ignoring information that contradicts a belief (Wason and Johnson-Laird 1972).
confirmation bias often combines with another preconception called belief perserverance (Lepper, Ross and Lou 1986). motivated by a desire to be certain about one’s knowledge it is a tendency to hold on doggedly to a belief even in the face of evidence that would convince most people that the belief is false. it is likely these beliefs form when when the individual hears some ‘truth’ being continuously repeated in the absence of contrary information.
cognitive bias - availability heuristic
occurs when we experience unusual or very memorable events and then overestimate how often such events typically occur. (Tversky and Kahneman 1973).
Example Kruger et al (2005) - asked students (n =1561) to estimate percentages of various outcomes of answer changing on mcqs test results
changing wrong to right = 33%
right to wrong = 42%
wrong to wrong = 24%
but when Kruger and colleagues calculated the actual percentages measured by looking at erasers on mcq test taken by same students results =
wrong to right = 51%
right to wrong = 25%
wrong to wrong = 23%
there is a huge difference students were holding on to the strong belief of don’t change answer go with first instinct a belief they thought was based on their direct experience but the belief was false.
What is Comte’s law of three stages
August Comte 1798-1857 described the shift from authority to reason as the first two of three stages in ways of knowing
Theological - metaphysical- positive
Theological = to explain anomalies and identify causes, the human mind points to interventions of supernatural agents - they govern what happens in our lives
Metaphysical = to explain anomalies and identify causes, the human mind rejects supernatural; agents and instead points to abstract entities. Similar but not supernatural eg fate
Positive = the human mind rejects speculation (supernatural and abstract) and limits itself to that which can be confirmed - the laws of governing phenomena
Positivism
19th century philosophers argued that we need to use data as a basis for knowledge and Comte called this positivism. He gives priority to experience “ positivism is the view that the only way to obtain knowledge of the world is by means of sense perception and introspection and the method of the empirical sciences (Acton, 1951, p.291)
American philosopher Charles sanders Peirce argument (1839- 1914)
He made a similar argument about the value of experience over reason. When beliefs are deduced from statements about what is thought to be true according to the rules of logic, beliefs precede experience or data. In other words, beliefs are a priori
But reason and logic can be used to reach opposing conclusions. The a priori approach leads philosophical beliefs In and out of fashion with no real progress towards truth.
The most reliable way to develop belief is through the method of science
Karl Popper
In The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1934/1959), Karl Popper criticized the positivist approach and pointed to the limits of experience as a way of knowing.
If my hypothesis is that all swans are white, and all of the swans I have seen are white, my hypothesis is confirmed.
Nonetheless, my hypothesis may be wrong.
There may be black swans that I have not seen.
Popper argued that data cannot prove that an hypothesis is true, but can it is not true – observing a single black swan is sufficient to disprove my hypothesis that all swans are white.
Falsification
Popper proposed the principle of falsification. Scientists should try to falsify their hypotheses rather than to confirm them.
Kuhn
Thomas Kuhn argued that science is characterised by revolutions in which the relations between theory and observation that were previously thought to be valid are rejected.
Observations lead to theories through induction which is descriptive about what people do and humans are better at this.
Theories lead to observations through deduction which are proscriptive logical rules which AI is good at
he also argued that refusing to give up a theory in the face of a few experiments questioning that theories validity can ensure the theory receive a thorough evaluation.
How new paradigms are created
There is normal science then an anomaly which scientists think issue with apparatus or ptps and they set aside anomalies. A crisis then occurs when anomalies build up so no more normal science model.there is then a change in the world view as knowledge is unstable. It’s then the pre-paradigm phase which can last a long time and is when alternate proposals are put forward. Lastly it’s the new paradigm stage when there is evidence consistent with the new paradigm. This is a long set of cyclical phases.
Kuhns criticism of popper
Doesn’t acknowledge how humans don’t falsify findings
There are no simple rules for science.
Instead, we evaluate scientific theories & knowledge by multiple principles.
• Descriptive adequacy
• Precision
• Coherence
• Falsifiability
• Explanatory power
• Parsimony
• Originality
• Breadth
• Usability
• Rationality
Ways of communicating
Conventions are norms about how to do things.
Conventions are not rules but agreements.
Conventions help people know what to expect.
Conventions such as spelling, grammar, and formatting facilitate communication and social interaction.
For research reports, psychologists follow conventions described in the APA Manual.
Summary of ways of knowing
Science is a way of thinking rather than a body of knowledge.
Science is characterised by processes rather than facts.
Science is guided by principles rather than rules.
Summary of ways of communicating
Effective communication conveys the process of science as much as the outcome.
Like science, good communication is guided by principles rather than rules.
the ways of knowing and science
pierce thought science was the most reliable way to develop a belief. its procedures allow us to know “ real things, whose characters are entirely independent of our opinions about them” - Tomas 1957
pierce believed that the chief advantage of science is in its objectivity - which for him meant to avoid completely any human bias or preconception. the ideal of a pure objectivity among scientists is impossible as they are human.
they rely on authority to some degree as often logically argue with each other in an a priori fashion and are prone to social cognition biases in the process of learning from their experiences.
science as a way of knowing
the ways of knowing that constitute science in general and psychological science in particular involves a number of interrelated assumptions and characteristics eg assuming determinism and discoverability.
