SCIENCE - Anatomy Flashcards
Types of glial cells in the peripheral nervous system
schwann cells - which secrete myelin
and satellite cells
Temporal lobe function
involved in language comprehension and emotional associations
Which lobe is responsible for processing visual information?
occipital lobe
white matter
myelinated regions - lies deep to the gray matter of the cerebral cortex
Gaps in the myelin sheath
nodes of Ranvier
outermost portion of the cerebral cortex that forms ridges
gyri
outermost portion of the cerebral cortex that forms valleys
sulci - this along with gyri maximizes surface area
two portions of the peripheral nervous system?
autonomic and somatic
autonomic nervous system, and what does it control?
in control of involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, respiration, and “fight or flight”
fight or flight response controlled by what?
adrenal gland (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
what portion of the brain controls the autonomic nervous system?
hypothalamus
what does the somatic nervous system control?
controls sensory information and motor control
two types of nerve of the somatic nervous system
afferent (sensory) - cells relay messages to the CNS
efferent (motor) - cells carry messages to the muscles
what is a reflex arc?
a signal sent from the peripheral nervous sys to the spinal cord, and then directly to a motor cell causing movement
salivary _____ breaks down primarily what?
amylase - and starch
peristalsis
rhythmic contractions that move the partially-digested food towards the stomach
what is in the stomach to aid in digestion?
HCl - hydrochloric acid
fat is broken down into what?
fatty acids and glycerol
digestion of fats requires what?
bile acids that are produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder
most nutrients are reabsorbed into the bloodstream in the ________, and this occurs through what type of cells?
small intestines, and mucosal cells
three major segments of the small intestines?
duodenum - combines digestive substances from the liver and pancreas
jejunum - primary site of nutrient absorption
ileum - absorbs remaining nutrients and moves the remaining matter into the large intestines
major function of the large intestines
In the large intestine, active transport of sodium, coupled with osmotic absorption of water, are the primary activities
waste first travels through the ____ and then the ______?
large intestines (colon) to rectum and through the anus
what initiates the breakdown of carbohydrates?
salivary amylase
outer layer of bone is composed of what?
a matrix made of collagen and minerals that gives bones their strength and rigidity
the bone matrix is formed from functional units called ______ that include layers of compact bone called ________
osteons, lamellae
the lamellae surround a cavity called the _______. which contain the bone’s blood supply. These canals are in turn connected to the _______ by another series of channels called ________.
Haversian Canal (central canal)
- periosteum
- Volkmann’s canals
circumferential lamellae connect to the ________ which is what?
-periosteum, the bone’s outermost membrane
osteoblasts within osteons produce what?
produce bone by secreting osteoid which undergoes calcification
when the bone tissue hardens around these osteoblasts, the bone hardens around cells called _______
osteocytes
osteocytes are found where? and the space they occupy within the bone tissue is known as _______
found in small spaces between concentric lamellae.
lacunae.
the lacunae are connected by a series of channels called _____
canaliculi
osteoclasts
break down bone and help maintain blood calcium levels
lining cells
flattened osteoblasts that protect the bone and also help balance calcium levels
spongy bone inside the outer harder layer is called ______
trabeculae
within the layer of trabeculae is the ______, which houses cells that produce _____. This process is called ________.
bone marrow that produces red blood cells
-hematopoiesis
bone marrow also produces many of the ________
lymphocytes aka white blood cells
four main categories of bones?
long bones (femur, humerus)
short bones - wider than they are long (clavicle and carpals)
flat bones (skull, pelvis, and rib cage)
irregular bones (jaw, vertebrae)
bones are held together at ______ by _______
joints by connective tissue called ligaments.
three types of joints
fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, and synovial joints
fibrous joints are connected by what?
dense, collagen-rich fibers aka immovable joints (connect skull bones - sutures)
Cartilaginous joints
joined by special tissue called hyaline cartilage (joint of all cartilage)
-Examples in humans are the “growth plates” between ossification centers in long bones.
Synovial joint
joined by synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint and allows for movement (knee)
osteoporosis
when minerals are leached from the bone, making bones more likely to break
brittle bone disease
results from a genetic defect that affects collagen production
osteoarthritis
breakdown of cartilage in joints
rheumatoid arthritis
an autoimmune disease that affects synovial membranes
the three types of muscle
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
skeletal muscle…
voluntarily controlled and attach to the skeleton to allow movement in the body
smooth muscles
involuntary muscles
cardiac muscles
found only in the heart, are involuntary muscles that contract the heart to pump blood
muscle is composed of what two proteins?
actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments) - these two things form a lattice structure
parts of muscle?
…see pic p. 98
two types of myofilaments are?
actin and myosin
when muscle fibers are overstretched, the result is what? this can cause what?
muscle strain - can cause stiffness, pain and bruising
what is muscular dystrophy?
a genetically inherited condition that results in progressive muscle wasting, which limits movement and can cause respiratory and cardiovascular difficulties
overstretching a ligament is called what?
a sprain
the two parts of the immune system?
innate and adaptive
innate immunity
includes nonspecific defenses that work against a wide range of infectious agents. this system includes both physical barriers that keep out foreign particles and organisms along with specific cells that attack invaders that move past barriers.
adaptive immunity
learns to respond to specific invaders
first line of defense examples?
skin, mucus, vagina acidity, saliva enzymes, urethra mechanical, earwax
the body’s initial nonspecific response?
inflammation - infected cells release signaling molecules indicating that an infection has occurred, which causes increased blood flow to the area. this increased blood flow includes the increased presence of white blood cells called leukocytes
most common type of leukocyte found at sites of inflammation
neutrophils - engulf and destroy invaders
what are antimicrobial peptides? RESPOND TO BACTERIA
part of the innate response, and these attack DNA or membrane of bacteria
INNATE cells that respond by compromising membrane
natural killer lymphocytes - perforin (pore) and granzymes (cause apoptosis)
infected cells may release what?
interferon - nearby cells increase defense in response
adaptive immune system recognizes molecules called?
antigens on the surfaces of pathogens
antigen-presenting cells have ______ to display “self” or antigens
MHC - major histocompatibility complex
antigens presented by MHC complex on antigen-presenting cells are recognized by?
helper T lymphocytes
helper T lymphocytes recognize antigens and begin releasing _______ which activate what?
cytokines, and activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes
function of cytotoxic T cells
Cytotoxic chemicals induces apoptosis of abnormal cells
perforin & granzyme
once B-cells are activated, the rapidly multiply to create ________ (B-cells must first be activated by cytokines from Helper T-cells)
plasma cells, which turn into antibodies
where are T-cells produced?
start to develop in bone marrow, but travel to thymus and mature here
where are B-cells produced?
stay in bone marrow until after maturation process
multiple sclerosis
immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves
lupus
occurs when your immune system attacks its own tissues and organs causing inflammation, pain and damage
males gametes or sperm are produced where?
testes (testicles)
once mature, sperm is stored?
in the epididymis
the testes are housed where? and what is the function of this part?
scrotum, and it contracts and relaxes to make sure the temperature is right for sperm production, which is usually slightly lower than normal body temperature.
during sexual stimulation the sperm travel through a small thin tube called the ______, and along the way the sperm is joined by ______ from three glands to form _______.
vas deferens, fluids, semen
what secretes the bulk of semen? and what is semen comprised of?
seminal vesicle, and it’s comprised mostly of proteins, sugar and enzymes
which three glands add to the fluid and sperm to create semen?
seminal vesicle, the prostate, and the cowper gland
function of the prostate gland
secrete fluids that add to semen in order to provide the alkaline fluid to counteract the acidity of the vaginal tract to aid sperm in survival
function of the Cowper gland (bulbourethral gland)
secretes a protein-rich fluid that acts as a lubricant
semen travels through the _______, and exits the body through the ________
urethra, and penis
the main hormone associated with the male reproductive system and where it is released from?
testosterone - released by the testes, and in the adrenal glands in much smaller amounts
gestate meaning
carry a fetus in the womb from conception to birth
review female reproduction p. 102, but already know most of this
…
what is the myometrium?
muscular layer next to the endometrium where muscle contractions occur during labor
Estrogen is produced where in females? Estrogen stimulates _______, which contain immature eggs cells.
ovaries, Graafian follicles
The pituitary gland releases ______, which causes the egg to be released into the fallopian tube (ovulation)
LH - luteinizing hormone
During pregnancy which two hormones are released in large amounts to help with fetal growth and to prevent further ovulation?
estrogen and progesterone
The endocrine system is composed of a network of organs called ______ that produce signaling chemicals called _______
glands, hormones
much of the action of the endocrine system runs through the ______, which receives signals from the brain and in turn will release hormones
hypothalamus
hormone released from pineal, and function
melatonin - regulates circadian rhythms (the sleep/wake cycle)
hormones released by pituitary gland
human growth hormone (HGH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin (PRL), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), oxytocin, and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and ACTH
hormones released by the hypothalamus
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), dopamine, growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), oxytocin, vasopressin
hormones released by thyroid gland, and functions
thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), calcitonin. energy use and protein synthesis
hormones released by parathyroid, and functions
(PTH) parathyroid hormone, calcitonin. Maintain calcium and phosphate levels. PTH acts on osteocytes to break down bone matrix to release calcium
hormones released by adrenal glands, and functions
epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, androgens, aldosterone. “fight or flight” response, regulation of salt and blood volume
hormones released by pancreas, and functions
insulin, glucagon, somatostatin. blood sugar levels and metabolism.
hormones released by testes, and function
androgens (testosterone). maturation of sex organs, secondary sex characteristics
hormones released by ovaries, and function
progesterone, estrogen. maturation of sex organs, secondary sex characteristics, pregnancy, childbirth, and lactation
hormones released by placenta, and function
progesterone, estrogens, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG - which targets corpus luteum and says don’t die, suppresses immunological rejection of the blastocyst, and shunts sodium away from mom to prevent damage to blastocyst), human placental lactogen (promotes mammary gland growth in preparation for lactation).
Main function: gestation and childbirth
hyperparathyroidism can lead to what?
osteoporosis
which system refers to the skin and related structures
integumentary system (skin is the largest organ in the body and includes the hair and nails)
Skin is composed of how many layers, and what are they?
3 layers:
- epidermis - the outermost layer. waterproof layer that contains no blood vessels and acts mainly to protect the body
- dermis - directly underneath the epidermis, which consists of dense connective tissue that allows the skin to stretch and flex. the dermis is home to blood vessels, glands, and hair follicles
- Hypodermis - a layer of fat below the dermis that stores energy (in the form of fat) and acts as a cushion for the body. It is sometimes called the subcutaneous layer
skin is important for thermoregulation, which is what?
blood vessels near the surface of the skin can dilate, allowing for higher blood flow and the release of heat. they can also constrict to reduct the amount of blood that travels near the surface of the skin, which helps conserve heat
the skin also produces what?
vitamin D when exposed to the sunlight
what are the glands responsible for maintaining homeostasis? where are they located?
eccrine glands - which are located primarily in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet (and to a lesser degree in other areas of the body). these glands release the water and salt (NaCl) mixture called sweat. These glands help maintain the appropriate salt/water balance
glands that are primarily found in the armpit and groin that release pheromones? what are they sensitive too?
apocrine glands - sensitive to adrenaline, and are responsible for most of the sweating that occurs due to stress, fear, anxiety, or pain. they are largely inactive until puberty
the urinary system is also called what?
the genitourinary system - because many organs function as part of both the reproductive and urinary systems, the two are sometimes referred to as this
urinary system is crucial for maintaining?
salt/water balance (electrolyte balance)
functions of the kidneys
filter waste from the blood; maintain the electrolyte balance in the blood; and regulate blood volume, pressure, and pH
hormones released by the kidneys, and their function?
renin - regulates blood pressure
calcitriol - the active form of vitamin D
the kidney is divided into what two regions?
renal cortex - outermost layer
renal medulla - inner layer
functional unit of the kidney is the? and what is this?
nephron - series of looping tubes that filter electrolytes, metabolic wastes, and other water-soluble waste molecules from the blood. a normal human kidney contains around one million nephrons
wastes filtered by the nephron include what two things?
urea - which is a nitrogenous byproduct of protein catabolism
uric acid - a byproduct of nucleic acid metabolism
-together these waste products are excreted from the body in urine
filtration begins in a network of capillaries called a ________ which is located in the renal cortex, and this waste is then funneled into _______ in the renal medulla.
glomerulus, and collecting ducts
from the collecting ducts, urine passes through the _______ and then through the two long tubes called ________
renal pelvis, ureters
the two ureters drain into the ________, which holds up to _______ of liquid
urinary bladder, 1000 mL of liquid
bladder exit is controlled by what?
two sphincters - internal (smooth m. and involuntary) and external (voluntary)
urine exits the bladder through?
urethra
what is the primary cell found in the tract of the small intestine?
surface absorptive cells (SAC) line the intestinal microvilli to absorb food material as it passes through the intestine
________ is the general term referring to the formation or conversion of bone by osteoblasts
ossification
function of progesterone in the female reproductive system
- stimulation of milk production in the breasts
- regulation and preparation of the endometrial lining of the uterus for potential pregnancy
- inhibition of contractions of the uterus as the ovum is released
layer of skin that acts as an energy reserve by storing adipocytes and releasing them into circulation when energy is needed
hypodermis
The ________ is the deepest layer of the five layers of the epidermis
The stratum basale is the deepest layer of the five layers of the epidermis, the outer covering of skin in mammals. … The stratum basale is primarily made up of basal keratinocyte stem cells, which can be considered the stem cells of the epidermis.
functions of the liver
nutrient processing, blood filtration and detoxification, cholesterol and lipoprotein production
two major zones of the respiratory system
the conducting zone - consists of the upper respiratory tract from the nose and mouth through the trachea
the respiratory zone - consists of the lower respiratory tract from the bronchioles to the alveoli and serves as a site of gas exchange
what is the alimentary canal
the whole passage along which food passes through the body from mouth to anus. It includes the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
major tissue layers of the alimentary canal
- mucosa
- submucosa
- muscularis externa
- serosa
outermost connective tissue covering of an organ, vessel or other structure
Adventitia is the outermost connective tissue covering of an organ, vessel, or other structure.
spongy bone is also known as what?
cancellous bone
