Schema theory Flashcards
Define schema theory
schema theory suggests that we have a framework of knowledge that we use to organize information. This can allow us to process information faster and quicker; organize knowledge, assist recall, guide behaviour and make sense of our current experiences. people are more likely to notice things that fit into their schemas. We predict what will happen based on what has happened before.
They are made up of our prior experiences and knowledge.
Implications of schemas
Schemas may be important in explaining why people have distorted memories of certain events or experiences.
having schemas means that we have preconceived ideas of certain things prior to our experiences, which may lead to a distortion in our memories, and may have serious implications in certain cases, such as the wrongful conviction of innocent people due to an unreliable eyewitness.
Schemas can also help us understand why there is discrimination or racism towards certain groups, as people may have schemas of a certain race or ethnicity. In order to move past this discrimination, it is important to understand why people act the way they do. The issue with schemas is that they may lead us to have distorted memories or to have an incorrect perception of certain groups of people/ racism
Signpost of Bartlett
supports the idea that people and their schemas are more biased towards their own experiences.
It is GOOD that the theory can explain why we do this.
Bartlett method and results
Aim- to Investigate how information changes with each reproduction and why it does. This shows how schemas/ experiences affect our memories.
Method
He conducted an experiment using English participants, and used a Native American story, a culture that would have been unfamiliar to them.
participants were split into two groups to be tested using two techniques: serial reproduction and repeated reproduction.
The serial reproduction task involved a string of participants, in which the first participant was asked to read the original story and tell it to the next participant after waiting a period of time. This was repeated until six or seven reproductions were completed. In repeated reproductions, each participant was asked to read the story and wait a period of time, before repeating it again. This was repeated until six or seven reproductions were completed.
The number of attempts were separated by different intervals of time, such as 15 minutes to as long as several years.
Results
Bartlett found that in both of these methods, similar results were found. As the reproductions went on, the descriptions became simpler and shorter.
Bartlett found that participants filled in gaps in the story using their existing knowledge. Things that were unusual were usually remembered incorrectly.
Details, such as numbers and names, were lost or made more familiar, and the story was simplified.
Participants would also add in inaccurate details as a way of explaining the story to themselves. For example, one participant claimed that a fire was started to cook breakfast.
Evaluation of Bartlett
Method-
strength of this study is that it is high in ecological validity. As participants were asked to read a story, this may be more realistic than a task such as learning a list of words. It also gives support to show how cultures may affect memory via schemas.
Both the repeated and serial reproduction tasks were done many times to show that changes to the story followed the same patterns.
The study was also conducted with different stories, which showed similar results, showing that findings were not limited to the story.
However, a criticism of the study would be that Bartlett did not always test the repeated reproduction participants at the same time intervals, and so the changes over time cannot be compared fairly.
the study was specifically designed to reveal flaws in memory, this may have low ecological validity. As Bartlett had chosen unfamiliar material, he could not be sure that the changes he found would happen with familiar information.
Concluding signpost Bartlett
support the idea that schemas can generate expectations about objects, events and people, as the participants had changed the story so that it made sense to them, and made the story conform to what made sense to them culturally.
It also supports the idea that when settings are unfamiliar, distortions and mistakes can be made, and gives evidence to support how schemas can interfere with the recollection of information.
Gives good support for schema theory as it shows that our experiences can affect our memory
Signpost of Hupp et al for Schemas
Hupp et al’s study gave evidence to show how gender schemas may be formed, and their results support the idea that schemas can affect our decision-making.
The study is good as it supports the idea that our upbringing affects our schemas, in this case, our gender schemas.
Method and Results of Hupp et al
Aim-
to see if a parent’s household duties, especially the role of mothers, predicted a child’s level of gender typing as an initial component of gender development. This is relevant to schemas as it shows that our upbringing/ the role of mothers can affect our gender schemas
Method-
looked at marital status of mothers. They theorized that married household/ households with two parents would have more gendered household roles, while divorced/ single parent household would show less gendered roles, as the mother would do both male and female roles. As such, they predicted that children of unmarried mothers would be less likely to engage in gender typing than those with married mothers.
Hupp et al have tests to 28 groups of children and mothers.
The children were given a Gender-typed knowledge test, where they were shown 2 pictures: a man and a boy together, and a woman and a girl together.
They were then shown a picture of a gender-stereotyped item and asked to select which picture the item belonged to.
The mothers were given a survey to assess their household behaviours and their levels of androgyny. They were asked to indicate how often they do masculine (mowing grass), feminine (doing laundry) or neutral household activities (taking kids to school).
They were also asked to indicate their marital status, employment and number and gender of other individuals in their home.
Results-
children of married mothers had higher levels of gender typed knowledge
while the married and unmarried mothers didn’t differ in how often they engaged in female or male activities, the unmarried mothers engaged in androgynous behaviours more often than married mothers.
The more a mother displayed androgynous behaviour, the less the child displayed gender-typed knowledge.
Conclusion
children’s gender-typed knowledge was dependent on their mother’s marital status. This may be because when when men and women get married, they engage in stereotypical divisions of labour, and so their children would develop more stereotypical gender schemas from observing their parents.
Evaluation of Hupp et al for schemas
Hupp et al’s experiment is supportive of schemas as it gives evidence to show the formation of gender schemas.
Hupp’s experiment is somewhat ecologically valid, as the findings are applicable to real life as it offers some explanation as to how and why gender schemas develop, and may be beneficial in understanding gender stereotyping.
However, the study lacks generalisability, as very little participants were used, and they were all chosen from midwestern town. As it was a Quasi-experiment, the researchers would have been unable to control all variables; they can’t be sure it is only the marital status of mothers that affected gender schemas.
Concluding signpost of hupp et al for schemas
As children that came from households where mothers did mainly traditionally feminine roles had more distinct gender schemas, this shows how their different experiences early in life affected their schemas and expectations of each gender
The presence of both types of behaviour may have offered a model of androgyny for the children, and led to less gendered knowledge.
The results of this study may be important as they reveal the dangers of schemas.
Though gender-typed knowledge provides a fast way to process information, they can lead to stereotyping.
Bransford and Johnson signpost
Schemas are good at offering an explanation as to why people have trouble recalling and comprehending information.
Method and results of Bransford and Johnson
Aim- Investigated effect of context on memory and comperhension of text passages.
5 groups of ppt, independent measures design
All ppt played a recording of a tape about balloons set up without context
Ppt asked to recall passage as accurately as they could
Ppt and groups did diff conditions:
No context- ppt only hear ^ passage
No context 2- ppt heard ^ passage twice
Context before- Before hearing the passage ppt were given a context picture (buildings and balloons)
Context after- ppt shown context picture after hearing pasage
Partial context- context pic given before the passage, but the objects (balloons, people, etc) were rearranged
Results
Context before made a big diff on no. of idea units recalled
Partial context allowed for marginally better recall, while all others were ineffective.
Conclusion
Schema theory- Both conditions were context was shown before hearing the passage led to better recall. The picture activates or creates a schema, which influences te organization of knowledge
Implications- could be applied to studying/ learning. To gain a better understanding of smth, you should clearly know the context before studying the new material.
Evaluation of Bransford and Johnson
Method
Independent measures design. Less demand characterstics, ppt unlikely to guess aim. If a repeated groups design used, ppt could get better at rememering the recording as they’ve done it before
Used no. of idea units recalled to tally results. Objective, no researcher bias
Lab experiment- well controlled. Lots of control variables
Ecological validity- recording used may have been too bizzare to be similar to any information a person would need to remember irl
Concluding signpost for Bransford and Johnson
As ppt did better when they were given context before the recall test, this gives evidence that a schema may have caused ppt to have an expectation/ preconceived ideas of the info, and allowed them to comprehend it better.
Good schema theory can explain y context matters for recalling/ processing info
Evaluation of schema theory
TEACUP
testable to an extent; studies which are highly controlled, such as Bransford and Johnson can be conducted to test for them, though it is important to note that the concept of schemas is still rather vague and cannot be observed.
There is also biological evidence to suggest that our brains sort information and classify it, in the manner schema theory suggests.
There had been studies that give evidence to show that information about living and non-living objects are shuttled to different parts of the brain.
Schemas can also be used to predict behaviour to some extent; it can help predict why eyewitness testimonies are unpredictable, but can’t say in what way exactly. However, the findings of Bartlett suggest that people tend to be more biased towards their own experiences.
In conclusion, schema theory offers an explanation as to how memory works, and reveals how memory can become distorted if the wrong schema is activated.
Ethical Issues of application of findings
Schemas may be beneficial for comprehending info if the correct schemas is applied, as seen from Bransford and Johnson. However, they are not always reliable or helpful, especially if an incorrect schema is applied, as seen in Bartlett. In the case of eyewitness testimonies, if an incorrect schema is applied, this may lead to recall being inaccurate. THey can also lead to us having a certain view of groups of people, as seen from Hupp et al, which may contribute to the enforcement of stereotypical gender roles or other stereotypes. Reveals how we may be reinforcing such stereotypes without being aware of it/ parents reinforcing these ideas in their kids w/o realising
