SAQ - introduction

Question 1

Explain one research method related to investigating the brain and behavior.

Answer 1

• research method: case study, field experiment, quasi experiment, true experiment
• behavior: observable actions
• localization of function: theory that specific parts of brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes
  
  • e.g. occipital lobe: interpretation of vision, brainstem: sends signal from brain to rest of body

Question 2

Explain one ethical consideration related to investigating the brain and behavior.

Answer 2

• ethical considerations: anonymity, debriefing, informed consent, deception, protection from undue stress or harm, right to withdraw
  
  • anonymity: participants and the data gained from them must be kept hidden unless they give full consent. No names must be used in research report
• behavior: observable actions
• localization of functions: theory that specific parts of brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes
  
  • occipital lobe: interpretation of vision, brainstem: sends signal from brain to rest of the body

Question 3

Explain one technique used to understand the brain and behavior.

Answer 3

• behavior: observable actions
• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit the information received from our senses
• neural network is formed by many of such nerve cells arranged together in brain
  
  • these neurons pass electrical impulses from one neuron to another
• neuroplasticity: changes in neural pathways and synapses due to changes in behavior, environment, thinking, emotions, as well as changes resulting from bodily injury
  
  • strengthening of synapses (a form of neuroplasticity) is due to long term potentiation -> researchers argue that repetition of a task results in neuroplasticity, leading to dendritic branching and neural networks forming which increases neural density
  • neural pruning (another form of neuroplasticity): the process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated due to lack of potentiation as a result of discontinued behavior

Question 4

Explain localization of function.

Answer 4

• localization of function: theory that specific parts of brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes
  
  • e.g. occipital lobe: interpretation of vision, brainstem: sends signal from brain to rest of the body

Question 5

Explain neuroplasticity.

Answer 5

• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit the information received from our senses
• neural network is formed by many of such nerve cells arranged together in brain
  
  • these neurons pass electrical impulses from one neuron to another
• neuroplasticity: changes in neural pathways and synapses due to changes in behavior, environment, thinking, emotions, as well as changes resulting from bodily injury
  
  • strengthening of synapses (a form of neuroplasticity) is due to long term potentiation. researchers argue that repetition of a task results in neuroplasticity, leading to dendritic branching and neural networks forming which increases neural density
  • neural pruning (another form of neuroplasticity): process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated due to lack of potentiation as a result of discontinued behavior

Question 6

Explain neural networks

Answer 6

• human brain consists of neurons and nerve cells that transmit the information received from our senses
• neural network is formed by many of such nerve cells arranged together in brain
  
  • these neurons pass electrical impulses from one neuron to another
• neuroplasticity: changes in neural pathways and synapses due to changes in behavior, environment, thinking, emotions, as well as changes resulting from bodily injury
  
  • strengthening of synapses (a form of neuroplasticity) is due to long term potentiation. researchers argue that repetition of a task results in neuroplasticity, leading dendritic branching and neural networks forming which increases neural density
  • neural pruning (another form of neuroplasticity): process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated due to lack of potentiation as a result of discontinued behavior

Question 7

Explain neural pruning.

Answer 7

• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit information received from our senses
• neural network is formed by many of such nerve cells arranged together in brain
  
  • these neurons pass electrical impulses from one neuron to another
• neuroplasticity: changes in neural pathways and synapses due to changes in behavior, environment, thinking, emotions, as well as changes resulting from bodily injury
  
  • strengthening of synapses (a form of neuroplasticity) is due to long term potentiation. researchers argue that repetition of a task results in neuroplasticity, leading to dendritic branching and neural networks forming which increases neural density
  • neural pruning (another form of neuroplasticity): process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated due to lack of potentiation as a result of discontinued behavior

Question 8

Explain one neurotransmitter and its effect on behavior.

Answer 8

• behavior: observable actions
• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit information received from our senses
• neurotransmission: process by which electrical & chemical signals pass from one neuron to another
  
  • process begins when electrical impulse (=action potential) travels along the axon of a presynaptic neuron toward axon terminal
  • in axon terminal, action potential causes vesicles to move toward the membrane of axon terminal
  • the membrane of vesicle fuses with membrane of axon terminal which enables vesicles to release its contents to synaptic cleft
    
    • molecules released from vesicles are chemicals called neurotransmitters which are responsible for relaying signals between neurons in the synapse
  • neurotransmitters drift across the synaptic cleft & bind to receptors on dendrite of postsynaptic neuron which triggers action potential in postsynaptic neuron to move toward the cell body of postsynaptic neuron
  • neurotransmitter gets released from receptor sites into synaptic cleft
    
    • some are degraded by enzymes in synaptic cleft
    • some are carried back into presynaptic neuron through transporter proteins then repackaged into vesicles so that they can be released again, which is a process known as reuptake

Question 9

Explain the neuron.

Answer 9

• neuron: brain cell
  
  • human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit information received from our senses
• neurotransmission: process by which electrical & chemical signals pass from one neuron to another
  
  • process begins when an electrical impulse (=action potential) travels along axon of presynaptic neuron toward the axon terminal
  • in axon terminal, action potential causes vesicles to move toward the membrane of axon terminal
  • membrane of vesicle fuses with membrane of axon terminal which enables vesicles to release their contents into synaptic cleft
    
    • molecules released from vesicles are chemicals called neurotransmitters which are responsible for relaying signals between neurons in the synapse
  • neurotransmitters drift across synaptic cleft & bind to receptors on dendrite of postsynaptic neuron which trigger action potential in postsynaptic neuron to move toward the cell body of postsynaptic neuron
  • neurotransmitter gets released from receptor into synaptic cleft
    
    • some are degraded by enzymes in synaptic cleft
    • some are carried back into presynaptic neuron through transporter proteins then repackaged into vesicles so that they can be released again, which is a process known as reuptake

Question 10

Explain the synapse.

Answer 10

• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit information received from our senses
• synapse: junction between axon terminal of sending neuron and dendrite of receiving neuron
• neurotransmission: process by which electrical & chemical signals pass from one neuron to another
  
  • process begins when an electrical impulse (action potential) travels long the axon of a presynaptic neuron toward the axon terminal
  • in axon terminal, action potential causes vesicles to move toward the membrane of axon terminal
  • the membrane of vesicle fuses with membrane of axon terminal which enables vesicles to release their contents into synaptic cleft
    
    • molecules released from vesicles are chemicals called neurotransmitters which are responsible for relaying signals between neurons in the synapse
  • neurotransmitters drift across synaptic cleft & bind to receptor sites on dendrite of postsynaptic neuron which triggers action potential in postsynaptic neuron that moves toward the cell body of postsynaptic neuron
  • neurotransmitter gets released from receptor into synaptic cleft
    
    • some are degraded by enzymes in the synaptic cleft
    • some are carried back into presynaptic neuron through transporter proteins then repackaged into vesicles so that they can be released again, which is a process known as reuptake

Question 11

Explain one excitatory or one inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Answer 11

• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit information received from our senses
• neurotransmission: process by which electrical & chemical signals pass from one neuron to another
  
  • process begins when an electrical impulse (=action potential) travels along the axon of presynaptic neuron toward the axon terminal
  • in axon terminal, action potential causes vesicles to move toward the membrane of axon terminal
  • the membrane of the vesicle fuses with membrane of axon terminal which enables vesicles to release their contents into synaptic cleft
    
    • molecules released from vesicles are chemicals called neurotransmitters which are responsible for relaying signals between neurons in the synapse
  • neurotransmitters drift across the synaptic cleft & bind to receptors on dendrite of postsynaptic neuron which triggers action potential in postsynaptic neuron that moves toward cell body of postsynaptic neuron
  • neurotransmitter gets released from receptor into synaptic cleft
    
    • some are degraded by enzymes in synaptic cleft
    • some are carried back into presynaptic neurons through transporter proteins then repackaged into vesicles so that they can be released again, which is a process known as reuptake
• excitatory neurotransmitter has activating effect on a neuron & increases chance that neuron will fire action potential
• inhibitory neurotransmitter has a repressing effect on a neuron & decreases chance that neuron will fire action potential

Question 12

Explain an agonist.

Answer 12

• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit the information received from our senses
• neurotransmission: process by which electrical & chemical signals pass from one neuron to another
  
  • process begins when an electrical impulse (=action potential) travels along the axon of presynaptic neuron toward the axon terminal
  • in axon terminal, action potential causes vesicles to move toward the membrane of axon terminal
  • the membrane of the vesicle fuses with membrane of axon terminal which enables vesicles to release its contents into synaptic cleft
    
    • molecules released from vesicles are chemicals called neurotransmitters which are responsible for relaying signals between neurons in the synapse
  • neurotransmitters drift across synaptic cleft & bind to receptors on dendrite of postsynaptic neuron which triggers action potential in postsynaptic neuron that moves toward the cell body of postsynaptic neuron
  • neurotransmitter gets released from receptor into synaptic cleft
    
    • some are degraded by enzymes in synaptic cleft
    • some are carried back into presynaptic neuron through transporter proteins then repackaged into vesicles so that they can be released again, which is a process known as reuptake
• agonist: molecule that binds to receptor site & stimulates a response
• antagonist: molecule that binds to receptor site & blocks receptor site and response

Question 13

Explain an antagonist

Answer 13

• human brain consists of neurons or nerve cells that transmit the information received from our senses
• neurotransmission: process by which electrical & chemical signals pass from one neuron to another
  
  • process begins when an electrical impulse (=action potential) travels along the axon of presynaptic neuron toward the axon terminal
  • in axon terminal, action potential causes vesicles to move toward the membrane of axon terminal
  • the membrane of the vesicle fuses with membrane of axon terminal which enables vesicles to release its contents into synaptic cleft
    
    • molecules released from vesicles are chemicals called neurotransmitters which are responsible for relaying signals between neurons in the synapse
  • neurotransmitters drift across synaptic cleft & bind to receptors on dendrite of postsynaptic neuron which triggers action potential in postsynaptic neuron that moves toward the cell body of postsynaptic neuron
  • neurotransmitter gets released from receptor into synaptic cleft
    
    • some are degraded by enzymes in synaptic cleft
    • some are carried back into presynaptic neuron through transporter proteins then repackaged into vesicles so that they can be released again, which is a process known as reuptake
• agonist: molecule that binds to receptor site & simulates a response
• antagonist: molecule that binds to receptor site & blocks receptor site and response

Question 14

Explain one research method related to hormones and/or pheromones.

Answer 14

• research method: case study, field experiment, quasi experiment, true experiment
• endocrine system relies on glands, hormones and cell receptors to regulate growth, sexual maturity, sleep etc
  
  • there are 10 hormone-producing glands in human body: 3 in brain, 7 in the rest of the body
  • hormones produced from glands travel through the bloodstream
  • receptors help each hormone find a set of target cells to bring about a specific change
• fight or flight response: physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival
  
  • threatening stimulus is needed
  • when amygdala determines something as a threat, it communicates with hypothalamus which triggers the HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis)
  • hypothalamus communicates with pituitary gland which then communicates with adrenal gland
  • adrenal gland releases hormone adrenaline
    
    • adrenaline gets pumped around the body & binds to receptors in different locations around the body which results in increase of heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure as well as pupils dilating and glucose being made readily available

Question 15

Explain one ethical consideration related to hormones and/or pheromones.

Answer 15

• ethical considerations: anonymity, protection from undue stress/harm, debriefing, deception, informed consent, right to withdraw
  
  • informed consent: psychologist should be able to explain what is involved in advance & obtain an agreement from participants to participate
• endocrine system relies on glands, hormones and cell receptors to regulate growth, sexual maturity, sleep etc
  
  • there are 10 hormone-producing glands in human body: 3 in brain, 7 in the rest of the body
  • hormones produced from glands travel through the bloodstream
  • receptors help each hormone find a set of target cells to bring about a specific change
• fight or flight response: physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival
  
  • threatening stimulus is needed
  • when amygdala determines smth as threat, it communicates w/ hypothalamus which triggers the HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis)
  • hypothalamus communicates w/ pituitary gland which then communicates w/ adrenal gland
  • adrenal gland releases hormone adrenaline
    
    • adrenaline gets pumped around the body & binds to receptors in different locations around the body which results in increase of heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure as well as pupils dilating and glucose being made readily available

Question 16

Explain one hormone and its effect on behavior.

Answer 16

• behavior: observable actions
• endocrine system realies on glands, hormones, and cell receptors to regulate growth, sexual maturity, sleep etc
  
  • there are 10 hormone-producing glands in human body: 3 in brain, 7 in rest of body
  • hormones produced from glands travel through bloodstream
  • receptors help each hormone find a set of target cells to bring about a specific change
• fight or flight response: physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival
  
  • threatening stimulus is needed
  • when amygdala determines something as a threat, it communicates with the hypothalamus which triggers the HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis)
  • hypothalamus communicates with pituitary glands which then communicates with adrenal gland
  • adrenal gland releases hormone adrenaline
    
    • adrenaline gets pumped around the body & binds to receptors in different locations around the body which results in increase in heart rate, breathing rate and blood pressure as well as pupils dilating and glucose being made readily available
• cortisol: steroid hormone that adrenal glands produce and release, mainly helps regulate our body’s response to stress

Question 17

Explain one pheromone and its effect on behavior.

Answer 17

• biological purpose of life is to procreate
• survival of the fittest: survival of the best adapted to procreate
• useful gene mutation for survival will be passed on
• pheromone: chemical substance that is transmitted from one individual to another through air, water or ground
  
  • detected by sense of smell
    
    • vomeronasal organ (VNO) has sensory neurons to detect pheromones -> presence of VNOs in human is debatable, and even if we have one, whether or not they still function is also debatable
• genetic inheritance: process in which genes are inherited or passed down from parents to offspring
• evolutionary psychologists argue that human behaviors are result of natural selection -> behaviors that best served human gene pool have been passed down from generation to generation
• mating behaviors are essential component of how behavior is inherited -> major focuses of evolutionary psychologists
• Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): group of genes that play important roles in immune system
  
  • make molecules that enable immune system to recognize pathogens
  • more diverse MHC genes of parents result in stronger immune system of offspring
  • expressed co-dominantly
    
    • because MHC alleles are inherited from both parents and they are expressed equally, it is beneficial to evolve systems of recognizing individuals with different MHC genes & preferentially selecting them to breed with to maximize immune responses
  • evolutionary psychologists argue that smell is sign of our MHC

Question 18

Explain one research method related to the relationship between genetics and behavior.

Answer 18

• research method: case study, field experiment, quasi experiment, true experiment
• biological purpose of life is to procreate
• survival of the fittest: survival of the best adapted to procreate
• useful gene mutation for survival will be passed on
• pheromone: chemical substance that is transmitted from one individual to another through air, water or ground
  
  • detected by sense of smell
    
    • vomeronasal organ (VNO) has sensory neurons to detect pheromones -> presence of VNOs in human is debatable, and even if we have one, whether or not they still function is also debatable
• genetic inheritance: process in which genes are inherited or passed down from parents to offspring
• evolutionary psychologists argue that human behaviors are result of natural selection
  
  • behaviors that best served human gene pool have been passed down from generation to generation
• mating behaviors are essential component of how behavior is inherited -> major focus of evolutionary psychologists
• Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): group of genes that play important roles in immune system
  
  • make molecules that enable immune system to recognize pathogens
  • more diverse MHC genes of parents result in stronger immune system of offspring
  • expressed co-dominantly
    
    • we inherit MHC gene alleles from both parents & they are expressed equally so it is beneficial to evolve systems of recognizing individuals with different MHC genes & preferentially selecting them to breed with to maximize immune responses
  • evolutionary psychologists argue that smell is sign of our MHC

Question 19

Explain one ethical consideration related to the relationship between genetics and behavior.

Answer 19

• ethical considerations: debriefing, protection from undue stress or harm, anonymity, right to withdraw, deception, informed consent
• biological purpose of life is to procreate
• survival of the fittest: survival of the best adapted to procreate
• useful gene mutation for survival will be passed on
• pheromone: chemical substance that is transmitted from one individual to another through air, water or ground
  
  • detected by sense of smell
    
    • vomeronasal organ (VNO) has sensory neurons to detect pheromones -> the presence of VNOs in human is debatable, and even if we have one, whether or not they still function is also debatable
• genetic inheritance: process in which genes are inherited or passed down from parents to offspring
• evolutionary psychologists argue that human behaviors are results of natural selection and behaviors that best served human gene pool have been passed down from generation to generation
• mating behaviors are essential component of how behavior is inherited -> major focuses of evolutionary psychologists
• Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): group of genes that play important roles in immune system
  
  • make molecules that enable immune system to recognize pathogens
  • more diverse MHC genes of parents result in stronger immune system of offspring
  • expressed co-dominantly
    
    • we inherit MHC alleles from both parents & they are expressed equally so it is beneficial to evolve systems of recognizing individuals with different MHC genes & preferentially selecting them to breed with to maximize immune responses
  • evolutionary psychologists argue that smell is sign of our MHC

Question 20

Explain one example of an evolutionary explanation for behavior.

Answer 20

• behavior: observable actions
• biological purpose of life is to procreate
• survival of the fittest: survival of the best adapted to procreate
• useful gene mutation for survival will be passed on
• pheromone: chemical substance that is transmitted from one individual to another through air, water or ground
  
  • detected by sense of smell
    
    • vomeronasal organ (VNO) has sensory neurons to detect pheromones -> presence of VNOs in human is debatable, and even if we have one, whether or not they still function is also debatable
• genetic inheritance: process in which genes are inherited or passed down from parents to offspring
• evolutionary psychologists argue that human behaviors are result of natural selection and behaviors that best served human gene pool have been passed down from generation to generation
• mating behaviors are essential component of how behavior is inherited -> major focus of evolutionary psychologists
• Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): group of genes that play important roles in immune system
  
  • make molecules that enable immune system to recognize pathogens
  • more diverse MHC genes of parents result in stronger immune system of offspring
  • expressed co-dominantly
    
    • we inherit MHC alleles from both parents & they are expressed equally so it is beneficial to evolve systems of recognizing individuals with different MHC genes & preferentially selecting them to breed with to maximize immune responses
  • evolutionary psychologists argue that smell is sign of our MHC

Question 21

Explain one gene and its link to behavior.

Answer 21

• behavior: observable actions
• genetic inheritance: process in which genes are inherited or passed down from parents to offspring
• Diathesis-stress theories of depression: predict that an individual’s reaction to stressful events depends on their genetic make-up
  
  • individual has specific genetic predisposition toward a disorder and interaction with stressors in environment may cause these genes to be expressed
• 5-HTT: seretonin transporter gene
  
  • involved in reuptake of serotonin in brain synapses
• low levels of serotonin are often associated with depression

Question 22

Explain genetic similarity.

Answer 22

• genetic inheritance: process in which genes are inherited or passed down from parents to offspring
• genetic similarity: a measure of the genetic relatedness among individuals
• zygosity: monozygotic (identical, ~100% genetic similarity) or dizygotic (not identical, ~50% genetic similarity) twins
• concordance rate: percentage of pairs of twins or other blood relatives who exhibit a particular trait or disorder