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Question 1

the thermal energy that was generated during the formation and early evolution of the Earth.

Answer 1

Primordial Heat from Planetary Formation

Question 2

The process of planet formation involves the collision and aggregation of smaller bodies (planetesimals). The kinetic energy from these collisions was converted into heat.

Answer 2

Accretion

Question 3

As the Earth formed, gravitational forces caused it to compress. The conversion of gravitational potential energy into thermal energy generated significant heat.

Answer 3

Gravitational Compression

Question 4

The decay of short-lived radioactive isotopes (such as aluminum-26) during the early stages of Earth’s formation contributed to the initial heat.

Answer 4

Radioactive Decay

Question 5

also known as gravitational contraction or self-compression, is the process by which a celestial body generates heat due to the conversion of gravitational potential energy into thermal energy.

Process converting gravitational potential energy into thermal energy during celestial body formation.

Answer 5

Gravitational Compression

Question 6

Accretion of smaller bodies into a larger body increases mass and gravitational force.

Answer 6

Formation Process

Question 7

The potential energy of particles transforms into thermal energy through friction and collisions.

Answer 7

Conversion of Energy

Question 8

Generated by the movement of tectonic plates.

Answer 8

Heat from Friction Due to Plate Movements

Question 9

Significant heat produced in the planet’s interior during early formation stages.

Answer 9

Heat Generation

Question 10

Plates of the Earth’s crust move over the semi-fluid asthenosphere.

Answer 10

Tectonic Activity

Question 11

Plates grinding against each other at boundaries (convergent, divergent, and transform) generate frictional heat

Answer 11

Frictional Heat

Question 12

Heat generated within the Earth’s interior is transferred to the surface through three main mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Answer 12

Heat Transfer Mechanisms within Earth

Question 12

One plate being forced under another generates significant friction and heat.

Answer 12

Subduction Zones

Question 13

Direct Heat Transfer: Heat moves through solid materials like rocks.

Answer 13

Conduction

Question 14

Fluid Movement: Heat transfer through the movement of semi-fluid rock in the mantle.

Answer 14

Convection

Question 15

Localized Heat Sources: Areas of volcanic activity not directly associated with plate boundaries
.

Answer 15

Hotspots

Question 16

1. Heat
2. Pressure
3. Volatiles

Answer 16

Conditions Required for Magma Formation

Question 17

For rocks to melt and form magma, temperatures must be high enough to overcome the bonds holding the minerals together.

Answer 17

Heat

Question 18

Residual heat from the planet’s formation.

Answer 18

Primordial Heat

Question 19

Continuous heat production from the decay of radioactive isotopes.

Answer 19

Radioactive Decay

Question 20

Generated by the movement and deformation of tectonic plates.

Answer 20

Frictional Heating

Question 21

1. Decompression Melting
2. Flux Melting
3. Heat-Induced Melting

Answer 21

Processes Leading to Magma Formation

Question 22

Heat-induced melting occurs when the temperature of the mantle or crust increases due to tectonic processes such as mantle plumes or hotspots.

Answer 22

Heat-Induced Melting

Question 22

Occurs when there is a decrease in pressure as mantle rocks ascend. This process is common at divergent plate boundaries, such as mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates move apart. As the pressure decreases, the mantle material rises and partially melts, forming basaltic magma.

Answer 22

Decompression Melting

Question 23

Happens when volatiles like water and carbon dioxide are added to the mantle, reducing the melting temperature of the rocks.

Answer 23

Flux Melting

Question 24

these chambers act as storage areas where magma can evolve before potentially leading to volcanic eruptions.

Answer 24

Magma Chambers

Question 25

When magma cools and solidifies below the Earth’s surface, it forms intrusive igneous rocks.

Answer 25

Intrusive Pathways

Question 26

Low in silica (about 45-55%) and high in iron and magnesium, basaltic magma is the most fluid type. It commonly forms shield volcanoes and basalt plateaus

Answer 26

Basaltic Magma

Question 26

When magma reaches the surface, it erupts through volcanic vents, forming extrusive igneous rocks like basalt, andesite, and rhyolite.

Answer 26

Extrusive Pathways

Question 27

Intermediate in silica content (about 55-65%), andesitic magma is more viscous than basaltic magma. It is often associated with stratovolcanoes and volcanic arcs

Answer 27

Andesitic Magma

Question 28

Low-viscosity magma (typically basaltic) flows out of the volcano, forming lava flows. These eruptions are generally less explosive and create broad gently sloping shield volcanoes.

Answer 28

Effusive Eruptions

Question 29

High-viscosity magma (such as andesitic or rhyolitic) traps gases, leading to pressure build-up and explosive eruptions. These eruptions can produce pyroclastic flows, ash falls, and significant volcanic debris, forming steep-sided stratovolcanoes or calderas

Answer 29

Explosive Eruptions:

Question 30

Formed by low-viscosity basaltic lava that flows easily and spreads widely

Answer 30

Shield Volcanoes

Question 31

Characterized by alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, resulting from explosive and effusive eruptions.

Answer 31

Stratovolcanoes/composite:

Question 32

Large, basin-shaped depressions formed when a volcano collapses following a massive eruption.

Answer 32

Calderas

Question 33

As magma cools, early-forming minerals crystallize and settle out of the melt, removing specific elements and altering the composition of the remaining liquid. This process can create layered intrusions with distinct mineral bands

Answer 33

Fractional Crystallization

Question 34

Magma can incorporate surrounding rock material as it ascends, altering its composition. This process is called assimilation, and it can lead to the formation of hybrid magmas with mixed characteristics.

Answer 34

Assimilation

Question 35

When magmas from different sources or depths come into contact, they can mix, forming a new magma with intermediate properties. This process can produce complex igneous rock formations with varied textures and compositions.

Answer 35

Magma Mixing

Question 36

Caused by mechanical deformation along fault zones, leading to changes primarily due to pressure. This can create rocks like mylonite.

Answer 36

Dynamic Metamorphism