Russian consequences Flashcards

Question

Felix Dzerzhinsky

Answer 1

A minor aristocrat of Polish birth who oversaw the Cheka and the OGPU. Catholic. In 1895, Dzerzhinsky joined a branch of the Lithuanian Social Democrat Party. He quickly became obsessed with Marxist theory and revolution and quit school to become a full-time revolutionary. After producing and distributing socialist propaganda in Kovno, Dzerzhinsky was arrested, detained and sentenced to three years in exile in Siberia. He remained there a little over a year before escaping. He would spend more than half of the next 20 years in prison or compulsory exile. He was released under the Provisional Government’s general amnesty and immediately joined the Bolshevik movement. By July 1917, Dzerzhinsky was a member of the Bolshevik Central Committee and was contributing to the planning of the October Revolution. In December 1917, Dzerzhinsky was appointed in the role for which he is best known: the head of the Cheka. Dzerzhinsky was instrumental in its expansion and fanatical in his leadership, often spending every waking hour investigating and crushing counter-revolution.

Answer 2

Born Alexandra Domontovich in 1872 to a former tsarist general and the the daughter of a minor nobleman. At 18, married Vladimir Kollontai. She had her first child, a son, the following year. After touring a textiles factory in 1896, Kollontai left her husband and infant child and devote herself to Marxist politics. After studying abroad, Kollontai joined the SDs in 1898. She sided with the Mensheviks after the party split in 1903. For women to participate equally in society, Kollontai argued, their second-class standing as workers had to be eliminated. In June 1915, sided with the Leninists. She returned to Petrograd after the February Revolution, sat on the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet and produced Bolshevik and feminist propaganda. She backed Lenin’s April 1917 call for a Soviet revolution and was arrested during the ‘July Days‘. After the October Revolution, Lenin appointed Kollontai the Commissar of Social Welfare. In this role, she helped construct Soviet reforms that legalised abortion, divorce and birth control. Prostitution was also decriminalised, while the legal concept of illegitimacy was banished. The Soviet Union became one of the first countries to grant women voting rights. In 1919, Kollontai and Inessa Armand formed Zhenotdel, a Soviet government department dedicated to the rights and needs of women. Kollontai took over the leadership of Zhenotdel after Armand’s death in 1920. Kollontai was not only concerned with the rights of women. In government, she became increasingly critical of the Communist Party, its growing bureaucracy and its heavy-handed management of factories and workers. Along with her former lover Shlyapnikov, then Commissar for Labour, Kollontai appeared at the head of a faction that shared these criticisms. Kollontai’s 1921 pamphlet “The Workers’ Opposition” called for party members and trade unions to have the freedom to discuss policy issues. She also advocated that before the government attempts to “rid Soviet institutions of the bureaucracy that lurks within them, the Party must first rid itself of its own bureaucracy.” This attack on the Bolshevik hierarchy spelt the end of Kollantai’s political career. At the Tenth Party Congress in 1922, Vladimir Lenin proposed a resolution to ban factionalism within the party. He argued that factions were “harmful” and only encouraged rebellions such as the Kronstadt Rising. The Congress agreed with Lenin and the Workers’ Opposition was dissolved. Soon after this, Kollontai was effectively sidelined by being given diplomatic posts abroad. She worked as a Soviet diplomat or ambassador in several countries, including Norway, Sweden and Mexico. After retirement, Kollontai retired to Moscow where she died in 1952.

Answer 3

Military force for new Soviet regime Formed by a decree in jan 1918 Trotsky was appointed war commissar in march and played a major role in organising and forming it Trotsky filled ranks with conscripts- thousands of tsarist officers for their expertise He was ruthless in enforcing loyalty and discipline, using threats against families and deploying party commissars and ‘blocking units’ Raised morale in Red Army, reminding them of their importance in history, using propaganda and travelling to supervise and speak

Answer 4

Bolsheviks became Russian Communist Party (of Bolsheviks)- March 1918 All-Union Communist Party (of Bolsheviks) in December 1925

Answer 5

30 august 1918 Michael Uritsky, head of CHEKA was assassinated that morning but Lenin still did speeches that afternoon Approached by women and Fanny Kaplan shot him three times Demanded to go to the Kremlin, fearing being ambushed on the way to the hospital Refused to be carried Survived but suffered severe headaches and migraines Now felt Red Terror was necessary “For the blood of Lenin…let there be floods of the blood of the bourgeois.” - Bolshevik newspaper

Answer 6

The political vision of the Bolsheviks and the social revolution envisaged by ordinary people drifting apart. The economy continued to break down - the ideals of state capitalism and workers’ supervision in industry were proving unworkable. A more centralised economic policy was emerging. Authoritarian measures were adopted to address crime and political opposition - opposition newspapers shut down, rival political groups banned. Cheka, led by Dzerzhinsky, created. Constituent Assembly dispersed by Bolsheviks (with aid of Kronstadt sailors) after one day. Economic difficulties exacerbated by loss of fertile grain-producing areas and mining regions in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Answer 7

Military opposition emerged soon after October 1917 Lenin wanted Treaty of Brest-Litovsk but left communists wanted international revolution When the treaty was put forward for ratification at the Congress and was approved, left SRs and some other socialists walked out. Opposition to the Soviet republic set in train - groups hostile to the Bolshevik regime fed south to the Ukraine or Siberia and began rallying forces. Former tsarist generals were already drafting together armies to oppose the Bolsheviks. (Whites and Greens)

Answer 8

traditional conservative forces, led by officers of former Russian army, supported by peasants, landowners, businessmen, ousted groups like SRs.

Answer 9

General Miller’s northern threat September 1918: SRs created a government but it was overthrown by General Wrangel who opposed a revolutionary socialist government General Yudenich’s north-western threat October 1919: 144000 Russian soldiers who had been captured and then released by the Germans. Attacked Petrograd but they were defeated by the Reds. General Denikin’s forces were the closest to Moscow before being defeated at Orel. Murder of the royal family August 1918: murdered by local Bolsheviks to prevent them being captured by white armies. Admiral Kolchak’s eastern threat 1918-20: Admiral of the Black Sea Fleet during the First World War and his hatred of socialism led him to focus on anti-Bolshevik government in Siberia. He advanced into Red territory along the Trans-Siberian Railway. Resigned after 80% of peasants deserted. He was shot by the Red Guard. General Denikin’s Southern Threat 1917-20: old-fashioned nationalist who wanted to restore old regime. Commanded 150 000 soldiers and advanced on Moscow. In March 1920 he handed over command of his White forces to General Wrangel

Answer 10

eperate collection of peasant and Cossack forces who were not aligned with Reds or Whites. Sought autonomy. Operated primarily in outer provinces. Began as revolts against the requisitioning of food.

Answer 11

Antonov led 40 000 Parisians that controlled Tambov region absolutely successful until mid-1921 Former Bolshevik Mohkno lead a large group of guerrilla fighters (Revolutionary Insurgent Army) and controlled a small part of Ukraine 1919-20 through cavalry attacks

Answer 12

Lenin’s political stance stirred anger amongst conservative European power holders Allies refused to recognise the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and gathered support for the Whites CATALYST - Lenin’s declaration on 18 January 1918 that all foreign debts were cancelled ‘uncondit

Answer 13

April 1918 British threat: British marines landed in several locations and provided physical and financial (70 million pounds) to the white armies April 1918 French Threat: involved with the British but withdrew the next year April 1918 Japanese threat and August 1918 American threat: Japanese sent 70 000 troops to Siberia hoping for more territory and the Americans went to restrain the Japanese, protect the railway and maybe support Admiral Kolchak’s new government May 1918 Czech Legion threat: 30 000 men planned to travel by trail back to the battlefields of Western Europe. Lenin agreed but Bolsheviks saw them as threats and attacked, especially when they aligned themselves with whites and and formed the independent republic of Volga. They had to fight to escape Russia. February 1919 to March 1921 Polish Soviet War: fought over Ukraine and Poland’s independence. Lenin needed Poland to export revolutionary agitation to Europe. Red Army drove through until defeated at Battle of Warsaw. Ceasefire and the signing of the treaty of Riga resulted (signed in Latvia March 18 1921). A polish-soviet boarder was established and allowed the bolsheviks to defeat the last white Russian general, Wrangel.

Answer 14

Siberian city of Omsk Anti-bolshevik government set up predominantly by SRs Lasts 8 weeks Overthrown by admiral Kolchok (war minister)

Answer 15

Alliances with the non-Russian population that used to be part of the empire were important in civil war- uses other ethnic languages White horses fight the red dragon

Answer 16

Important external threat Capture Kiev but are pushed back by the Red Army Red Army nearly make in to Warsaw Communists get excited about international revolution Lenin expects Polish to welcome them as communist saviours- not so Forced to retreat in Battle of Warsaw (12-25 August) Armistice negotiated in October Treaty of Riga ratified 18 March 1921 Treaty gave Poland 30 million roubles (not a lot with inflation), bit of Ukraine and Belorussian territory and railway material Treaty allowed soviets to deal with shot term concerns- march 1921 Kronstadt uprising, peasant uprisings in Ukraine, defeat last White forces led by General Wrangel

Answer 17

Reds had advantages as they controlled the centre of the country- most of population, therefore can form a bigger army Moscow was heart of railway which made communication easier Reds inherited Tsar’s arsenal of weapons Most people in centres were Russian so Reds could appeal to patriotism Leadership of communists was effective CHEKA ran a ruthless campaign of terror Trotsky organised the Red Army Propaganda portrayed the whites as tsarist Red Army- effectively run by Trotsky, had 5 million by 1920, strict discipline (Oath of the Red Warrior), appointed 50 000 tsarist military officers The CHEKA- terror, torture, nearly 9000 shot, 87000 arrested, 140 000 killed in Civil War, 140 000 killed in eliminating uprisings- Okhrana killed 14 000 in 50 years Unity of purpose- patriotism- victory would consolidate revolution, whites were depicted as evil, tsarist, bourgeoisie, supernatural and foreign capitalists Defending a central location- whites had a large area but reds had centres- industrial strongholds- equipment, ammunition, railway

Answer 18

Divided purpose and strategy- vast background of motive and political ideology, geographical distance furthered disunity and lack of communication, equipment was not shared, military tactics were not shared, offensives did not happen planned together. The reds were not fighting a unified force but multiple little forces Lack of propaganda- they didn’t communicate with the peasants, did not appear better than reds- from upper classes and did not approve of seizing land, also relied on foreign aid which allowed Lenin to depict them as foreign enemies

Answer 19

Important as a tactician and inspiring orator in encouraging victory The armoured train in which he travelled around inspiring had ammunition, resources, a court, maps, specialists etc. people expected good things when he arrived Talked of an “inevitable” victory He was popular as people saw he would sacrifice himself for an idea Passionate speeches, divisiveness He fought on the front with his men as equals Seemed undaunted by the attacks on his train Never seemed to rest “A prophet of a happy future”- Volkogonov He defended the Bolshevik use of Terror, which gave the Bolsheviks more power to use it Executed troops that attempted to escape- imposed heavy discipline

Answer 20

Founder and head of the CHEKA | Increased numbers in the CHEKA

Answer 21

Targeted Russia’s privileged class, people suspected of anti-revolutionary actions and White Army “First you must ask him to what class he belongs, what his social origin is, his education and profession. These are the questions that must determine the fate of the accused” - Latsis, deputy of Dzerzhinsky “If there is meat in [the soup pot], then he is an enemy of the people.” - another CHEKA More organised and fear-inducing by mid-1918 “We stand for organised terror…the CHEKA is obliged to defend the revolution and conquer the enemy even if its sword does by chance sometimes fall on the heads of the innocent.” - Dzerzhinsky Decree “On Red Terror” was passed 5 September 1918 which allowed for concentration camps and the execution of white guard organisations, conspiracies and rebellions.

Answer 22

``` Shot victims bit my bit Boiled skin off hand- glove trick Rolled in spiked barrels Blunt saws through bones Rats gnawing stomach Roasted Buried in coffins with dead people Shot with a blank Many Chekists went insane- alcohol and drug abuse ``` “We must not only execute the guilty. Execution of the innocent will impress the masses even more.” - Nikolai Krylenko

Answer 23

Death of Petrograd CHEKA Uritsky by assassination and attempt on Lenin’s life “For the blood of Lenin and Uritsky…let there be floods of bourgeoisie blood.” - newspaper Higher calling “honest” and “trustworthy” men “pure as crystal” - Dzerzhinsky’s description of a CHEKA Guardians of the revolution

Answer 24

White Armies targeted suspected communists and jews Nailed them to trees Buried them in the ground and rode over their head with horses Carved stars into their backs Hacked limbs off Buried head-down “let of steam” by murdering, raping and plundering Jewish towns In Ukraine 100 000 Jews were murdered

Answer 25

17 July 1918 On way to Moscow for trial, they were intercepted by a local bolshevik group and imprisoned Woken and told to dress for a ‘photo’ but were greeted by red guards Yurovsky, chairman of the local CHEKA announced “we must now shoot you” and shot the entire family, maid, cook, doctor, valet and dog Bodies were taken to a deserted mine shaft where they were cut up, soaked in petrol and burnt with large bones dissolved in sulphuric acid Lenin may have given the order but the local Cheka decided to do it No trial, no accusations and no proof of guilt

Answer 26

Whit soldiers were relatively close to where they were and they could have been rescued If they were rescued, anti-bolshevik forces would be motivated Demonstration that there was no return to Tsarism Difficulties in communication lead to local initiative

Answer 27

Trotsky often is depicted as a demon | anti-Semitic

Answer 28

Strengthened Bolshevik authority Psychologically created a survival mentality incredible self-belief and a ruthless determination to fight against seemingly overwhelming odds. Politically - war shaped the militaristic character of communism, which meant that party members readily accepted the tradition of loyalty and discipline. Organisationally - war developed a strong centralised administration characterised by an authoritative leadership with smaller governing bodies. Socially - war justified strict sanctions and summary justice on perceived counter-revolutionary threats both inside and outside of the party.

Answer 29

Any form of production would be run by the state. Private ownership of property was to be kept to the minimum. Private houses were taken away by the state. State control would be granted through labour by the citizens and once a unit of the military had served its purpose it would become a labour army. The state should produce everything in its own undertakings. The state tried to control the activities of millions of peasants. Extreme centralisation was widely practiced. The economic life of the area controlled by the Bolsheviks was put into the hands of just a few organisations with the Supreme Economic Council being the most significant one. This organisation had the right to confiscate and requisition property.

Answer 30

Confiscation of manpower to red army or industry (conscription) Forced confiscation of grain and food (requisitioning) Banning private trade (growth of black market resulted) Abolition of money for trade, trade of goods was encouraged Militarisation of labour- as wages were the same and there was no money circulation, people were forced to work without financial compensation Soviet farms on large estates Nationalisation of large-scale industry and railways Rationing of food Imposition of a grain tax Communist Sundays- expected to volunteer to aid the war effort CHEKA were sent after kulaks to coerce them into giving grain- mass terror and suspicion resulted

Answer 31

After civil war: 95% (9.5 million) of deaths were due to famine and disease Industrial output was 15% of what it was and agriculture 60% Number of industrial workers had fallen by half Coal production had fallen by 30% since 1913 Electrical output had fallen by 25% since 1913 Bribes became accepted Cannibalism British created Save the Children Fund in Russia for famine Food given by American Relief Administration saved 14 million peasants- help humiliated communists Richer peasants called kulaks were blamed by Bolsheviks for high prices from the food shortage- blamed for hoarding food- many historians believe they just didn’t have the incentive to produce huge amounts of foods 8000 grain requisitioners killed by peasants who had nothing left to give

Answer 32

The peasants fought against communist requisition squads in a virtual civil war. Less food was grown which meant terrible famine in the countryside in 1921 and 1922 (Between 1917 and 1921, the amount of land under cultivation dropped by 40%) Food shortages in the towns led to strikes and unrest. The population in the cities left to find food in the countryside. Industry shrank and money became valueless due to inflation Sailors mutinied at Kronstadt in 1921

Answer 33

economic devastation social chaos ideological disillusionment

Answer 34

Aspects of War Communism such as conscription and requisitioning created political, economic and human disaster: 9.5 million dead from famine and disease during Civil War (vs 350,000 in combat). I.e. 95% of deaths due to famine and disease. Industrial output down to 15% of pre-war levels Agricultural output down to 60% of pre-war levels Number of industrial workers fallen by half Decrease coal and electricity production Cannibalism occurred due to famine. Shortages were worsened by a year of drought and heavy frosts Grain requisitioning often exceeded harvest surplus, worsening starvation Peasants murdered 8000 grain requisitioners

Answer 35

Kulaks’ (richer peasants) blamed by the Communist part for food shortages and prices. Chekists sent to coerce kulaks to give up their grain. Committees of the Poor (kombedy) also created 11 June 1918 which were designed to have peasants monitor kulaks and confiscate surplus - largely unsuccessful and abandoned by December 1918, This heightened terror and suspicion. Increasing levels of peasant unrest, especially in Tambov region and the Ukraine. Some areas ungovernable.

Answer 36

The Great Famine reached peak in 1921 Killed 5 million maybe 8 million Severe droughts caused it but worsened by war and grain requisitioning Shortages saw thousands of peasants fleeing to cities but they found no relief Some survived eating weeds, bark, acorns or flesh of dead animals Cannibalism and murder So desperate that government allowed help from foreign countries

Answer 37

By beginning of 1921 rouble lost 96% of pre-war value Industrial production fell to 10% of 1913 Population of Petrograd fell from 2.5 million in 1917 t0 600 000 in 1920

Answer 38

When civil war ended, people had hope that the government would restore a tolerable life Disappointed as war communism was not weakened, policies did not change People saw the communist party as more interested in power than saving the revolution Workers in Petrograd believed that Bolshevik centralisation, bureaucracy and autocratic attitude had been responsible for the suffering Unemployed workers called meetings to discuss the situation but were suppressed The communists would not help the proletariat but would make compromises with the capitalists of Europe and America Strikes were called in the Patronny munition works, the Trubotchny and Baltiyski mills and Laferm Factory Government created a committee of defence lead by hated Zinoviev to suppress the strike movement Strikes were declared on 24 February and Bolsheviks called for kursanti (communist students of military academy) to disperse the workers February 25- strikers visited Admiralty shops and docks and induced workers to protest. Strikers were dispersed by soldiers February 26- Petrograd Soviet held a session where Lashevitch suggested the Trubotchny factory be closed and this was agreed upon by the committee. As the workers were locked out, they were deprived of rations- made people more angry Strikers’ proclamations began to appear in Petrograd A complete change is necessary in the policies of the Government. First of all the workers and peasants need freedom. They don't want to live by the decrees of the Bolsheviki: they want to control their own destinies. Comrades, preserve revolutionary order! Determinedly and in an organised manner demand: Liberation of all arrested socialists and nonpartisan workingmen; Abolition of martial law; freedom of speech, press and assembly for all who labor; Free election of shop and factory committees (zahvkomi), of labor union and soviet representatives. Call meetings, pass resolutions, send your delegates to the authorities and work for the realisation of your demands. Government imprisoned people and suppressed several labour organisations More anger February 28- Socialist Workers of the Nevsky District: We know who is afraid of the Constituent Assembly. It is they who will no longer be able to rob the people. Instead they will have to answer before the representatives of the people for their deceit, their robberies, and all their crimes. Down with the hated Communists! Down with the Soviet Government! Long live the Constituent Assembly! Bolsheviks concentrated large military forces in Petrograd and ordered Communist regiments in from the front Petrograd was put under “extraordinary marital law” Strikers were overawed and the labour unrest crushed with an iron hand

Answer 39

The Kronstadt sailors had become disillusioned with the Bolshevik government. They were angry about: Lack of democracy The Red Terror The policy of War Communism

Answer 40

Kronstadt was a threat: Highly trained military force They had been the vanguard of support for the Bolsheviks since 1905 Response: Red Army and CHEKA were unleashed with Trotsky ordering the invasion of the garrison 17 March

Answer 41

Government announced abolition of grain requisitions, replacing them with a tax in kind Assumed that the rebellion inspired Lenin to announce the NEP which answered some Kronstadt demands The Tenth Congress saw the Workers’ Opposition condemned and ordered to disperse in a move that some see as a harbinger of Stalin’s dictatorship

Answer 42

Low incomes Low industrial yield Coal mining was 10% Iron production was 1/40 The railway system was nearly destroyed In February 1921 118 seperate peasant uprisings January 1921-already poor bread rations were to be reduced by 1/3 Angry that system of wartime was being applies in peace time

Answer 43

Stormed the winter palace Served in the Civil War First area to be fully controlled by Soviets

Answer 44

War Communism The crackdown on protests Factories had become like forced labour prisons from tsarist times Rumour (untrue) that worker protests were shut down by Cheka firing squads Grain requisitioning Autocracy New soviet elections Freedom of speech and press Release of soviet political prisoners End to requisitioning Disbanding labour armies End to military-style working conditions Did not call for an end to revolution- close to October 1917values

Answer 45

Began 26th February and continued until Kronstadt’s defeat 17 March (same time as Tenth Party Congress in Moscow) 16 000 sailors at Kronstadt and 60 000 Red Army soldiers 12 000 sailors fled to Finland and 2000 were executed by the Red Army 1 March 1921- sailors rallied in Kronstadt’s Anchor Square- meeting was chastised by Soviet CEC chairman Kalinin and commissar of the Baltic fleet. Rally endorsed a resolution drafted by sailor Stepan Petrichenke who called for significant changes to society March 7- Trotsky ordered 50 000 Red Army under General Tukhachevsky to launch an offensive. Cheka were to shoot any retreaters 300 delegates of Tenth Party Congress joined offensive for morale Sailors kept them off for a week 17 March- Kronstadt is captured by communists

Answer 46

Red Army and CHEKA were set on them Lenin said they were counter-revolutionary and sympathetic to SRs, Mensheviks and White Guards Lenin was not willing to change for this- others would rise up in protest if harsh response was not put in 10 000 Red Army died 5000 sailors died Over 2000 executed Over 6000 sent to prison and labour camps Other sailors escaped across the ice to Finland Lenin realised that changes needed to be made to pacify

Answer 47

Green armies describe peasant resistance to Bolshevik government during Civil War 1918 and 1919 poorly organised and localised uprisings, easily surpassed 1920 after defeat of white armies, large, well organised peasant uprisings in Tambov, Volga and Urals, Ukraine and Siberia Grain requisitioning and oppression from Cheka and Red Army caused protests 1920 and 1921- Alexander Antonov's Insurgent Army in Tambov and Nestor Makhno's forces in Ukraine were organised militias whose members had military training- supported by SRs, Anarchists and some former Bolsheviks, they established an underground government to provide food, horses and intelligence to insurgents and terrorised communities- hard to defeat

Answer 48

1920 to 21 Largest Agricultural province In civil war, they had opposed whites but they did not support Bolsheviks Angry about grain requisitioning Formed Union of Toiling Peasants UTP became popular and issued a manifesto in 1920 calling for political equality, land reform, an end to civil war and other liberal reforms 100 000 Red Troops sent in to shoot all suspected rebels, to use poison gas to flush them out of hiding in the forest and to capture concentration camps By mid 1921, uprisings had been repressed Antonov evaded capture until 1922 when he was killed during an arrest

Answer 49

UTP was lead by Alexander Antonov a former SR who was a police officer under PG before reverting to terrorism and assassinations against Bolsheviks Formed a cavalry force of several thousand to attack Bolshevik strongholds around Tambov Wanted to drive Bolsheviks from Moscow By 1921 he had 20 000 Sometimes called Blue Army Bolsheviks dismissed the Tambov army as a ramble of kulaks and rejected manifesto Architect of Tambov revolt

Answer 50

Opposed to war communism 1918 several thousand Tatar peasants in rural Kazan rebelled against rebelled against requisitioning but it was surpassed by Red Army Larger rebellion in Ufa in February 1920 against grain requisitioning. Local bolsheviks were detained and executed. Called the ‘Black Eagle’ or ‘Pitchfork Rebels’ were defeated by Cheka in march 1921 Peasants rebelled twice against Soviet rule in Altai Krai and Sorokino in Siberia in 1920 and then 1920. They had support from former White officers and local anarchists but were overthrown by Red Army

Answer 51

By February 1921 grain procurements had been suspended in much of Russia and Ukraine In march the 10th Party Congress made private grain trade legal The end of Soviet-Polish war in march also freed elite armed forces to turn against rebellions In summer of 1921 Red Army backed by planes, armoured cars and artillery attacked insurgent forces followed by Cheka who eliminated support for insurgents by holding families hostages, making villages collectively responsible for guerrilla attacks, shooting suspected supporters and sending thousands to concentration camps With drought, terror, abolition of grain requisitioning and military conscription, the Green Movement collapsed by September 1921 A few leaders such as Makhno slipped across the boarder but most were hunted down and killed such as Antonov who was shot in 1922

Answer 52

Workers Opposition was a group within communist party that was prominent 1920-21 as a champion of workers’ rights and trade union Developed in 1919, resisting the domination of central party organs over local parties and trade unions Also resisted party’s minimisation of the role of workers in controlling industrial enterprises, the increase of bourgeoisie specialists in industry and the party’s efforts to replace group industry control with one man Objected to Trotsky’s plan to transform trade unions into state organs Insisted unions, as the institutions representing workers should control the national economy and individual enterprises At 10th Party Congress March 1921 its platform was rejected, ideas condemned and was ordered to disperse Members remained and continued to oppose party 11th Party Congress March-April 1922 refrained from expelling them from the party but censured them and forced them to curtail their activities

Answer 53

almost 1,100 delegates representing almost 3/4 million party members. Critical point in the development of the new society in Soviet Russia. Lenin took the lead role at the congress, delivering economic policies to ease the pressure on the Russian people and political measures to stop his party from fracturing into anarchist and syndicalist factions. About 300 of the congress delegates left for Petrograd immediately after its conclusion, in order to join the Kronstadt fight. Lenin recognised a need to alleviate the dire economic conditions in Russia and “to satisfy, as far as possible, the middle peasantry”. The response to this was the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP). Lenin’s other main goal was to address the lack of unity within the party and prevent the schism that was fast approaching. He had been infuriated by the emergence of the Workers’ Opposition and smaller factions dedicated to syndicalism – the idea that workers, through their unions or collectives, could own, operate and profit from their own factories without any need for state control. Lenin argued that factionalism and criticism from within was hurting the party, encouraging dissent and rebellion (as at Kronstadt) and providing ammunition for counter-revolutionaries and foreign enemies. He said that “…everyone who criticises in public must keep in mind the situation of the party in the midst of the enemies by which it is surrounded”. His response was a decree entitled “On Party Unity”

Answer 54

All dissent and factionalism was forbidden By Lenin Members could be expelled and punished for breaching conditions of this edict SU had become a dictatorship under the party and the party had become a dictatorship under Politburo

Answer 55

Grain requisitioning abolished replaced by a ‘tax in kind’ Peasants had to give a fixed proportion of their grain to the state- much less than the amounts taken by requisitioning. They could sell any surpluses on the open market. Small businesses reopened Small-scale businesses under private ownership were allowed to reopen and make a profit. small workshops and factories that made goods such as shoes, nails and clothes. Lenin realised that peasants would not sell their produce unless there were goods that they wanted on sale. Ban on private trade removed food and goods could flow more easily between the countryside and the towns. Privately owned shops were reopened. Rationing was abolished and people had to buy food and goods from their own income. The money economy was back! State control of heavy industry Controlled coal, steel and oil. It also retained control of transport and the banking system. Industry was organised into trusts that had to buy materials and pay their workers from their own budgets. If they failed to manage their budgets efficiently, they could not expect the state to bail them out.

Answer 56

Peasant rebellions and Kronstadt revolt made discontent clear and unmanageable Productivity needed to be restored Pacify Incentive for peasants to produce more

Answer 57

A tax in money (introduced in 1924) stabilised currency Economic ties with foreign countries slowly resumed Small businesses reopened A new currency which was more stable allowed for inflation to be controlled Production increased in most industries Manufacturing and light industry was very successful Exports in oil surpassed those of tsarist times Heavy industry lagged behind- tried to modernise the sector but there was a lack of foreign capital Railways transported twice as much

Answer 58

``` Reduced discontent and rebellions Recovered from famine In devastated areas, the new tax was held off for a year Grain production rose Livestock rose past pre-war levels Diversity in crops Peasants were better off than before WWI Taxes were lower than with tsar Chose to consume rather than sell, leading to lower quantities of grain entering market ```

Answer 59

Crisis of ideology leading to friction in party Some believed that previous centralisation was an achievement of the Civil War Lenin initially described it as a retreat before the onslaught of militant communism “A tactical retreat”- Zinoviev Elsewhere Lenin described War Communism as a mistake Bukharin described it as a stepping stone, a transitional state toward socialism Bukharin also instructed peasants to ‘enrich’ themselves during NEP but this was not popular with communists Greater support from peasants and workers

Answer 60

Unemployment in heavy industry rose half a million by end of 1922 Reduced discontent and rebellions Average wage of factory worker increased by 150%

Answer 61

The new polity only restored industry and agriculture to pre-war levels of production. Many communists resented the NEP because they thought it represented the return of capitalism.

Answer 62

The requisition squads were withdrawn and instead peasants were allowed to keep their surplus and pay a small tax to the government. In the towns, small-scale, private industry was allowed but big businesses were kept under government control. Production increased and a new small capitalist class of Nepmen appeared. Opposition to the communists ended. ‘Scissors crisis’ Results: Production increased Exports of oil surpassed those of tsarist times Heavy industry lagged and as a result unemployment in that sect rose by half a million by end of 1922 Reduced discontent of peasants and workers Recovery from famine Grain production increased and became more varied Taxes were lower than under tsar

Answer 63

Bolsheviks would not let NEP restore capitalism as it might result in more parties

Answer 64

Kronstadt and peasant uprisings made appearing unified important Disagreed over NEP Formed factions such as Workers’ Opposition Those who called for unions were called anarchosyndicalists whose proposals conflicted with party ideals and were seen as ammunition for critics Lenin passed two decrees On Anarcho-syndicalist Deviation- opposition factions were ‘inconsistent with membership’ and continued advocacy was illegal On Party Unity- banned factions Those who refused to disband or formed factions were threatened with expulsion Later these bans allowed Stalin to rise up

Answer 65

Bans removed November 1918 and February 1919 respectively Tolerance did not last Supported 1921 strikes in Petrograd and Moscow and were declared illegal ‘counterrevolutionaries’ and 2000 Mensheviks were executed Many fled overseas 34 SRs were brought to trial, accused of plotting terrorism, counter-revolution, collusion with Whites and organising strikes Those who pleaded guilty as told to were acquitted and the others imprisoned or executed

Answer 66

Country side flooded with Red Army and CHEKA Makhno’s Green Army suppressed by late 1920 Antonov’s rebels crushed Poisonous gas flushed partisans out of forests Aeroplanes watched horsemen Villages were threatened with execution if rebels did not surrender Killed for carrying weapons Ny august 1921 Green Armies were stamped out

Answer 67

``` May 1922 Dzerzhinsky’s secret police investigated academic and literary journals for ‘overt counter revolutionaries’ and ‘corrupters of student youth’ By September 120 imprisoned Many deported to Germany and France Some fled Executed ```

Answer 68

February 1922 replaced by GPU which was a branch of NKVD Change from ‘revolutionary expediency’ to ‘revolutionary legality’- Lenin Dzerzhinsky headed GPU and NKVD, many old Cheka remained and headquarters remained Name Cheka was associated with terror and needed change- was not much different Was under NKVD until July 1923 were it became OGPU and was an independent people’s commissariat and enshrined in the constitution of USSR Decline in executions and extremism Better at surveillance Goal was to infiltrate all society

Answer 69

Cheka was 100 000 Okhrana was 15 000 Okhrana never carried out terrors 14 000 people killed in 50 years by Okhrana 140 000 executed and 140 000 killed in repression by Cheka OGPU was more like the Okhrana

Answer 70

After revolution soviets took over functions of local government Many soviets were run by elected non-Bolshevik socialists- often tried to remain independent and ignored institutions from Moscow Communists did not tolerate hostile or uncooperative soviets as they sought to marshal their resources for Civil War Used ballot rigging or intimidation by Cheka to win soviet elections Installed a chairman and executive committee made up of communists to run the soviet Chairman of the soviet was often the chairman of the local communist party Later in 1920s, people who were not communist party members were not allowed to stand for election

Answer 71

The membership had changed. end of 1919, the party was purged of undesirables. The new members recruited between 1920-1922 were mainly of peasant background. Few had any knowledge of Marx and some knew little about 1917. They had joined to improve their life chances. They were more prepared to do as they were told. The party had lost its base in the proletarian workforce. Many of its earlier urban worker members had gone on to fight in the Civil War or join the party bureaucracy. By 1919, 39% of party members were in the army and the majority of others were workers in offices, not factories. Discussion and debate declined. In 1917 and in the months afterwards, the party had been characterised by passionate debate, disagreement and splits. But aw the Civil War progressed, sch debate declined as the need for unity grew. the party became more hierarchical and centralised. The Politburo, with seven to nine members, took over the decision-making from the much larger and unwieldy Central Committee of around 40 members. Orders were passed out from the centre and party members were expected to carry them out. the rank and file of the party generally accepted that the crisis caused by the Civil War and the state of the economy justified the increased centralisation and discipline in the party. A large proportion of party members had fought in the Red Army and military discipline had been instilled in them. The Civil War became for them a heroic period during which they had been linked in camaraderie, and they were used to a pattern of command in which orders replaced consultation.

Answer 72

Second half of 1921 on basis of Tenth Congress resolution “On Problems of Party Development” Long and careful preparation 170 000 people (25%) were expelled Improved social composition, strengthened discipline, gave party greater prestige amount non-party workers and peasant masses and freed the party from elements that discredited it Ideological and organisational unity was enhanced Bureaucratic centralism increased allowing for Stalin to become entrenched in the party function

Answer 73

Splits in 1920 angered Lenin Unnecessary distractions given crisis Called for unity and end to all splits and factionalism 1921 Tenth Party Congress passed ‘ban on faction’- once a pity policy was agreed on by central committee everyone had to accept it or be expelled

Answer 74

1923 onwards Key personal jobs were given ti Bolsheviks and pro-bolsheviks Loyalty over expertise Elite More authoritarian- no one questioned if they wanted their post Decision making was with few Proletariate were seen as “uncultured” having not been there for 1917 Party saw themselves as having exclusive right to lead the people to socialism

Answer 75

After 1917 6 provinces decided to become independent Soviet republics Created divisions in Russia Parts like Ukraine and Georgia took independence Lenin wanted federation of all soviet republics signed the Treaty of Union in 1922 which joined them together as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics which were meant to have equality USSR gov was in Moscow Remained until 1991 Republics were never really free and were just like branches that were controlled from Moscow National revolts Leaders promoted learning of national traditions and culture and brought people of different ethnic groups to work in government - “planting down of roots”

Answer 76

26 May 1922 first stroke December- 2 more Wheelchair bound Lenin gave much thought to who would rule next Was Stalin looking after him or imprisoning him?

Answer 77

“I mean measures against a split”- factionalism is biggest concern, needs strong party to maintain power Stalin and Trotsky do not agree and make splits likely Stalin has “unlimited authority concentrated in his hands, and I am not sure whether he will always be capable of using that power with sufficient caution.” Trotsky has “excessive self assurance” and works only in administration but has “outstanding ability” Bukharin- popular, “clever theorist”, “can be classified as Marxist only with great reserve” Pyatakov- “too much zeal for administrating” but has “outstanding will and outstanding ability.” “Stalin is too rude” “removing Stalin from the post” Great fear of a split Significance Action is not taken whilst Lenin still lives, so Stalin is not removed Was not released until after Stalin took power

Answer 78

While Lenin recovered, Russia was ruled by the triumvirate- Stalin, Kamanev and Zinoviev They were anti-Trotsky Met before meetings to agree on strategy and voting- promoted factionalism When Lenin returned he was suspicious and asked Trotsky to join him in a ‘block against bureaucracy’ By 15th December, Lenin had a mother stroke Stalin took change of Lenin’s factors and restricted visitors Confined to wheelchair and only allowed 5-10 minutes of dictating a day Secretaries reported everything Lenin said to Stalin

Answer 79

Trotsky says Stalin gave him the wrong date May have been sick But probably just realised it would not be safe for him there

Answer 80

Trotsky experienced political decline in 1923 and is Jewish background was seen as an issue Stalin rose in power Lenin did not want Stalin to take power but when his testament was read Kamenev said that Stalin had showed no signs of this and agreed with Stalin that Lenin had not been in the right state of mind Stalin offered resignation but it was refused Trotsky said nothing- hopeless and he was Jewish Central Committee agreed not to read testament to whole the whole congress or release it Power was consolidated in Triumvirate Trotsky had lost power after Lenin’s illness- criticised NEP and been linked to Platform 46 what was a left group who criticised party. Missing funeral also looked bad Wrote Lessons in October where he criticised Zinoviev and Kamanev but that just made Stalin more powerful and had Trotsky was further attacked He was replaced as commissar of war In 1924 Stalin released an interpretation of Marxism- Socialism in One Country- Zinoviev and Kamenev were appalled and attacked Stalin but they failed to get support Kamenev denounced Stalin and had Politburo voting rights were removed Trotsky made peace with Zinoviev and Kamenev and formed United Opposition against Stalin In July 1926 all were removed from Politburo 1927 all expelled from party Trotsky was exiled January 1929

Answer 81

1928 disagreements with Stalin and right-wing members over grain crisis Stalin wanted to ban private trade, impose peasant collectives and increase industrial output Bukharin, Tomsky and Rykov wanted NEP- Stalin accused them of supporting Kulaks and accused them of being a factional group 1929 Bukharin was removed from Politburo

Answer 82

Targets for Russian industry 1928-32 to become more developed Large-scale government funded projects Reduce the threat of Western invasion Most areas were unsuccessful in reaching the ambitious targets but all areas did increase

Answer 83

Strip farming was inefficient and did not produce enough food for population Industry was down due to hunger Stalin called for collectivisation of small farms into large, state run farms to use machinery more efficiently Peasants were trained at machinery and tractor stations Rejected collectivisation but Stalin forced in through in 1930 Kulaks opposed it because quality of life would decrease All kulaks were eliminated People rioted and murdered but collective farms (kolkhozes) were made “dizzy with success, lose all sense of proportion and the capacity to understand realities.” - Stalin Massive disruption to farming, production decreased Kulaks had been successful at farming peasants slaughtered livestock instead of giving ip up Harvests 1930-32 were poor Grain quotas had to be met Armed units seized grain 10 million died Hoarders shot Cannibalism Peasants could not travel and it was not reported so few knew

Answer 84

January 11 1928 Deported by Stalin to Alma-Ata in remote Soviet Central Asia After a year, banished from the USSR forever Received by government of Turkey and settled on the island Prinkipo where he wrote his autobiography and history of the Russian Revolution 4 years in Turkey Lived in France and then Norway Grated asylum in Mexico where he lived with his family Found guilty of treason in absentia during Stalin’s purge Survived machine gun attack on home August 20 1940 a Spanish Communist, Ramon Mercader fatally wounded him with an ice-ax and he died the next day

Answer 85

Woodcuts used to convey accepted folklore on social or political issues- understood by peasants Icons were common in churches and houses- illustrations to enhance spiritual devotion or a commentary on religious issues Satirical cartoons on the government published in ‘fat journals’ after 1860s- 40 million copies. Stolypin repressed them to restrict revolution Posters became common in WWI- patriotism

Answer 86

Needed to increase party size Needed to communicate to large expanse of Russia Needed to educate people on socialism, communism, proletariat and bourgeoisie

Answer 87

Anatoly Lunacharsky as head of the people’s Commissariat for Enlightenment Removed monuments and images of the tsar Promoted Bolshevism by making new monuments, decorations, films, leaflets, agitprop trains and public celebrations Visuals were common due to illiteracy

Answer 88

Red- colour of revolution, blood of martyrs and fire of faith Lenin- oversized to show power and dominance Hero- soldier/peasant/worker at the centre to convey centrality of communism. The ordinary person defeated the tsar and they will prosper under communism Chains- struggle of hero to overcome oppression Hammer and sickle- worker and peasant Crowds- unified, adoring, power Sun- hopeful future, out of darkness Capitalists- greedy, formal suits, evil or animalistic, fat Church- evil priests, fat Red star with five points- Red Army from 1918but became common on posters St George defeating the dragon- defeats bourgeoise Blacksmith- in every town and city, proletariat

Answer 89

Art and culture were used by the Bolsheviks to create a socialist consciousness in its citizens. Anatoly Lunacharsky was Lenin’s Commissar of Enlightenment, head of a sprawling commissariat that controlled education from kindergarten to the university, nationalised cinemas, the old tsarist theatres, as well as agitation, propaganda, and anything else that seemed to fit. He initiated a staggering array of projects that gave Russia a new cultural face.

Answer 90

Proletarian Culture Movement Aimed to create a new proletariat culture and express a soviet lifestyle Non-party Proletcult hoped for socialist revolution

Answer 91

Futurism rejected past traditions and glorified technology and the proletcult Constructivism saw a rise in sculpture and architecture

Answer 92

Art Music Buildings Inspired by factories, coal, steel and tools and the Civil War Battles Agitprop trains and boats were brightly coloured and travelled handing out leaflets, posters and giving speeches and performances such as movies and music

Answer 93

Christenings replaced with Octoberings where parents promised to raise communist kids Red marriages Cities renamed to be of communist leaders Names changes Christian holidays replaced with May Day and October Revolution anniversary Comrade Swearing was removed due to it being seen as a product of poverty and class Speech was made more efficient Clothing was based on constructivist ideals

Answer 94

Could control how and what people learned and therefore feed them propaganda “the illiterate person stands outside of politics”- Lenin

Answer 95

We are not slaves, slaves we are not

Answer 96

Volunteers travelled to the country side | In cities free workers’ reading rooms were established

Answer 97

Experimental schools were made Standardised education with compulsory attendance Controlled by commissar of enlightenment

Answer 98

By the mid-1920s, 51% of Russians could read and write compared with 23% at the turn of the century. By the mid 1930s there were very few illiterate Russians.