consequences of the French Revolution Flashcards

Question

revisionist historians

Answer 1

FR was something of a failure. William Doyle acknowledged that the revolution initiated significant changes, but questioned whether the changes were sufficient to justify the amount of struggle, violence and loss of life it also caused. He concluded: "Was, then, the revolution worth it in material terms? For most ordinary French subjects turned by it into citizens, it cannot have been.’

Answer 2

reason and equality, rationalism and decentralise and the creation of fair and accessible judicial systems

Answer 3

Centre society around reason and equality would improve life Equality before the law, abolition of privilege and recognition of merit Power no longer came from god and the king but from the people Rejected corporate society Basic human rights were universal Response to Cahiers Sought to make king accountable to parliament to solve financial crisis Formed a constitutional monarchy Made all citizens responsible for tax Assembly took apart the venal offices and the parlements

Answer 4

rationalisation: practical application of what the philosophes called reason Reduced overlapping of unnecessary institutions 83 more equal departments Each department divided into districts and them communes Decentralisation of power and power was spread throughout the nation to prevent king and nobles gaining power

Answer 5

Uniformity: the idea that any institution should work much the same way, no matter where it was located There had been different system of law across France in the ancien regime There would be one system of justice administered equally by trained lawyers Judicial system was established in departments, districts and cantons (division of an area) Buying venal offices was banned Lawyers had to have practiced for 5 years Jury system was introduced A justice of the peace was appointed in each canton to offer guidance in reconciliation and arbitration and hear some cases Lettres de cachet banned People had to be taken to court of released from prison Reduced number of crimes that were punishable by execution Abolished cruel punishments Guillotine was invented to be more humane and execution was equal for everyone

Answer 6

From The Books of Grievances the NA took three main ideas: Accepted that the financial problem/ the national debt, could be solved by a political solution, that of making The King accountable to a parliament. This was a fast progression from absolute monarchy, in which The King ruled as he wished, to constitutional monarchy, in which the King ruled in conjunction with a representative assembly. NA accepted that the financial problem would be solved only by a complete fiscal reform that would make all citizens responsible to pay some taxes. NA accepted that the new citizens of the nation should have civic and legal, equality and some guarantees of individual liberties. exceeded the brief contained in The Books of Grievances and made reforms that nobody had dreamed of in 1788. THUS the revolution created a more revolutionary environment in which new revolutionaries invented a total program of national reform. The Books of Grievances had not suggested an administrative reorganisation of the entire nation - the revolutionaries abolished the old provinces and creating in their place a more rational system of departments. The Books had few demands to abolish noble & all other titles - The Books had complained about the feudal system, i.e. feudal dues and special privileges BUT The revolutionaries decided that the feudal system itself could be entirely dismantled. No plan was made to confiscate all Church possessions - THE NA destroyed institutions that nobody had questioned = the system of venality of office and the parlements

Answer 7

Power decentralised Attempted a coherent structure Democracy was introduced at all levels- officials elected Cantons were where primary assemblies for elections were held (as well as justice of the peace) - voting

Answer 8

Three tiers of voting: Men over 25 who paid 3 days labour in local taxes. 4.3 million. They chose electors Electors paid 10 days labour in local taxes. 50,000 men. Elected members of canton and department assemblies and could be officials. They also elected deputies. Deputies paid 54 days manual labour in direct tax. 61% population could vote in some form Wealth was still a large part of power Most peasants could stand for office so by 1790 there were no government officials at a local level. South bourgeoisie landowners controlled councils. North urban bourgeoisie took office. Rural communities had laboureurs, merchants and artisans take office. 1889-99 1 million people elected Councils assessed and collected tax, law and order, public works, upkeep of churches, national guard, clerical oath of loyalty, register births, deaths and marriages, grain, watch people opposing revolution. Few literate in villages so duties were done badly. Catholic areas, they didn’t like persecuting priests so many resigned.

Answer 9

After collapse in 1789, few taxes collected Needed money, especially as venal office holders needed compensation Used existing system until 1791- lead to violence until all the indirect taxes except external customs duties were abolished Church land was nationalised 2 Nov 1789 Reasons for selling church land: Provide money until taxation system was made. Guarantee success of revolution as purchases would oppose restoration which might lead to church recovering land. Clergy would become dependent of revolution because they were paid by it. 1791-2 sold quick Bonds called assigns were sold to the public to buy land with. April 1790 it was converted into paper money that could be used in all bank transactions. Bourgeoisies had the ready cash to buy. Land was sold in large plots 25% sold by 1799 Peasants bought 52% and bourgeoisie 48% A third of peasants were first time land owners Bourgeoisie often resold in smaller plots to peasants Peasant landholders increased by a million between 1789 and 1810 Abolished taxes and systems: Indirect taxes- aides, traites, octrois, gabelles State monopoly on tobacco Old direct taxes- taille, capitation, vingtièmes Tax farming New direct taxes: Contribution fonciere- land tax with no exceptions Contribution mobiliere- a tax on moveable goods paid by active citizens Patente- tax on commercial profits Survey of land values did not happen until 1807 so tax rolls were based on ancien regime so there was great variations across the country Could avoid paying direct taxes by hiding income which with indirect taxes and goods was harder Burden now fell on producers not consumers with indirect taxes gone

Answer 10

Social structures and internal barriers out France behind Believed in laissez-faire so introduced free trade in gain in august 1789 which extended to other products in 1790-1 People were unhappy as they wanted control to avoid scarcity and high prices and starvation. October 1790 internal tariffs were abolished and a national market created Single system of weights and measures. Rid of any organisation that gave privilege when employing Guilds were abolished in 1791 as it had restricted entry of people to jobs June 1791 Parisians went on strike for higher wages NA passed Le Chapelier law which forbade trade unions and strikes etc. Church cared for needy but with no land and therefore no money could not State formed a committee in 1791 which determined that 2 million people begged to survive They had no money to fix this problem.

Answer 11

Abolished: Different systems in north and south Different types of court Lettres de cachet New system: Justice of the peace to persuade people to agree Serious matters at district court Criminal court in each department Jury Court of appeal was the the head and its judges were elected but had to be qualified (5 years) Penal code more humane Crimes reduced Guillotine- most feared image of the revolution Justice was free and equal for all

Answer 12

Official structures were made more rational, efficient, accountable, accessible and fair Changed everyday for most people Doyle’s statement cannot be true Failed to help the poor Poor had a right to government assistance a role that had been taken by the church and other groups About 2m who survived by begging Government investigated but lacked fuel to implement assistance DORMAC acted as constitution until one was written and then became the introduction (was treated with religious importance and barely changed).

Answer 13

voting and taxation

Answer 14

Three tiers of citizens: Men >25 who paid the equivalent of three days’ labour in local taxes = passive citizens (approx 4.3 million). Chose electors. Only about 40% Electors = active citizens = paid equivalent of 10 days labour in local taxes (approx 50,000). Elected members of the canton and department assemblies, and deputies to the National Assembly Deputies in the National Assembly = paid >equivalent to 54 days’ manual labour, in direct taxation. At least 1/4 of wage in taxes Whose interest does this serve? The richer people the only new people with a voice are the Bourgeoise NOT universal suffrage - citizen had to be male, resident in their home for a year (to avoid the people who fled France from getting power again- 20,000 emagres, not engaged in domestic service, and paying (as above).

Answer 15

Existing system of indirect and direct taxation should last until 1791 because it is too hard and other things need to be changed first. Hopes of people fall, unhappiness develops Does not really consider the demands in the Cahiers

Answer 16

Church was nationalised 2 November 1789 and assignats were introduced Provided money for state Guarantee success of revolution - those who bought Church lands have a vested interest in success of revolution. Make clergy dependent on new regime for salary.

Answer 17

Paper bill issued as currency from 1789-96 Bore 5% interest with recently nationalised church lands as security September 1790 it became currency Initially it stimulated the economy and eliminated a money shortage Distrust of paper money and a fear that it would become worthless if the revolution collapsed made it depreciate War in other counties further lessened its use.

Answer 18

They started with the church because it was a relic of corporate society of the ancien regime which benefitted from privilege (contradicted the revolution)

Answer 19

Reorganisation of church The Civil Constitution of the Clergy The Opposition of the clergy Oct. Nov. 1790 The making of France's Constitution, 1789 -1791 As a consequence of these and other factors, the revolution divided against itself in 1790-1791

Answer 20

The French Revolution lost popular support: First turning point in the Revolution - Reform of the Church Second turning point in the Revolution - Consequences of flight to Varennes

Answer 21

1- Changed the financial and organisational structure of Church. 2- Church privileges were abolished w/o compensation. 3- Church lost feudal dues from its lands and peasant paid tithes 4- Church unable to decide how much tax it would pay. 5- Plural appointments abolished. 6- 02/11/89 National Assembly confiscated Church property.

Answer 22

They would become civil servants but would be paid better No major conflict of principal or conscience. Don’t have to be nobility to become a bishop ect.

Answer 23

There was no serious conflict with the Church until the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (CCC) was approved on 12 July 1790. The French Bishops advised the King that he should accept it and proclaim the CCC, which he did on 24 August 1790.

Answer 24

Drafting committee assumed a clear division between secular admin and spiritual theology Committee accepted Pope's spiritual leadership but believed admin of the church in France was business of government.

Answer 25

1. State guaranteed generous salaries for all clergy. 2. All clergy live near their appointment. 3. Church organisation = streamlined, creating 83 bishops for the 83 departments 4. Reorganised thousands of parishes.

Answer 26

1. no. of bishops and priests lost their positions. 2. appointment of clergy was democratised: bishop to priest elected by meeting of citizens. 3. government’s aggressive attitude to Pope acknowledged role of the Pope BUT forbade French citizens contact with foreign Church representatives deprived the Pope of the power to appoint archbishops and bishops. Were not allowed to talk to the man closest to god

Answer 27

30 bishops in the NA voted against the CCC and were branded unpatriotic Clergy claimed such changes should only be made with consent of Pope or Church assembly October - December 1789, the French Church divided over the reforms, confusion, conflict and chaos across France.

Answer 28

27 November 1790 The NA took the rejection rather badly and decided to get all priests to SWEAR AN OATH TO THE GOVT Many priests regarded this as a matter of conscience, no matter what the price, as this forced them to accept or refuse the revolution as a whole. The King passed this decree Dec. 1790 & priests had to obey by 4 January 1791. Only two of 44 bishops and 109 priests took the oath Priests who refused the oath were branded as 'refractory' clergy, or non-juring clergy. ‘Refractories' became targets for intimidation from the revolutionary crowds and in Paris few priests dared to risk refusal. Across France = average rate of refusal was a massive 50% of the clergy as a whole, Pope formally condemned the reforms and later urged all clergy to refuse the oath No longer a matter of conscience - an issue of spiritual obedience- 10% now retracted their oath, thus becoming enemies of the revolution. King had sanctioned the CCC and the oath because on advice of French bishops - he now withdrew his support. This created doubts as to whether the King was really on the side of the revolution.

Answer 29

All who opposed became enemies of the Revolution- Counter Revolutionaries!!

Answer 30

The constitution had content that could cause crisis It was sent to the king for approval He was a devout man and accepting it made him feel wrong The King was being abused by the people- tried to go on holiday and his carriage was surrounded and could not be removed by the national guard His protector, Mirabeau suddenly died Marie-Antoinette hated the revolution and warned Louis against hesitation- believed it was a plot by disloyal nobility such as Lafayette aided by the dishonest third estate ‘tramps’ Ex-ministers such as Calonne warned him the only safe place was overseas Bouille (military advisor) said he could reach the army garrison at Montmedy, gather troops, call in Austrian troops and crush the revolution Midnight, 20 June 1791, they left Involved relays of fresh horses, disguises and two separate coaches A broken wheel and other issues caused these arrangements to fail Messengers in Paris galloped to the boarder to alert people to look for them Marie Antoinette was recognised and Louis’ face was compared to that on a bank note Louis was detained and taken back to Paris the next morning He was then under heavy suspicion which was worsened by the fact he left behind a document stating he rejected the revolution

Answer 31

Louis failed to understand the popularity of the revolution Louis renounced the revolution People had to make choices they didn’t want to make Credibility of the constitution was undermined Support of republic grew 24 June, 30 000 people marched on the NA for the king’s dismissal

Answer 32

Lost popularity Royal inn names and street signs removed No longer trusted Deputies feared declaration of a republic could cause civil war and wars with other counties 16 July decided to suspend the king until constitution was written and he could come back when he agreed to it- made a lot of deputies uncomfortable and they refused to vote People were angry and felt the NA no longer represented them Cordeliers called Jacobins to join in a protest against the King, this divided the Jacobins- those who wanted the king and those who didn’t (most drifted back over the months)

Answer 33

Fiction presented by NA that King kidnapped by counter-revolutionaries and returned to safety. Why? If the King was deposed, there could be no constitutional monarchy (King’s brothers in exile and his son too young to rule.) Most deputies preferred a moderate constitutional monarchy and feared a radical republic. If the King meant to leave the country, it was to join the revolution’s enemies, Austrian troops or emigres. This created fear of attack - fear is an accelerator of revolution.

Answer 34

24/06/91 - Cordelier's Club members petitioned the NA to depose King. Crowd of 30,000 people helped present the document. Parisian crowd began destroying any symbol of the monarchy they could find. When NA declared King free of all blame (15/07/91) agitation in radical clubs. NA declaration dubbed ‘The Great Lie’. Jacobin Club members demand King be deposed, put on trial for treason, and some even called for a republic. Later militants declared King, by leaving had abdicated and could not be reinstated. Jacobin Club saw many members, like Lafayette, resign & form Feuillants Club because of the move to extreme radicalism.

Answer 35

Opened in 1780, the Parc du Champ-de-Mars extends from the École Militaire to the Eiffel Tower. A hotspot for national events, it can be accessed freely and offers the most beautiful view of the capital’s landmark monument. Parisians and tourists gather on its lawns to picnic, play music, and watch the Eiffel Tower’s twinkling lights at nightfall.

Answer 36

The Social Circle Club had joined with the Jacobin Club to demand that the King not be restored to office. They planned a public petition on the Altar to the Fatherland at the Champ de Mars. On 17 July 1791, 50,000 people flowed into the Champ de Mars - signing the petition demanding King be deposed. - crowd turned on two suspicious individuals and prepared to murder them. - Bailly, called upon the National Guard to restore order. - Lafayette arrived with his guards gave a warning to disperse. - National Guard opened fire onto revolutionary crowd about 50 people killed many injured.

Answer 37

Revolutionaries began firing on revolutionaries

Answer 38

When the massacre occurred, it was clear that there were two French Revolutions and that they were locked in conflict. The first Rev. was the liberal project of 1789: the King would stay and would rule The second Rev., 1791, was more radical: it would insist that the monarch be deposed, and a republic be established. Initially, the moderate Rev. won. police arrested about 200 political militants; some important figures, i.e. Danton, fled overseas, Marat, went into hiding. more radical clubs such as the Social Circle, and some radical newspapers, closed down, the opposition seemed cowed.

Answer 39

The revolutionaries wrote a constitution which defined constitutional monarchy. This means executive power/ power of the King = limited, and greater power is given to the legislature/ law-making body. Louis = King of the French, rather than King of France i.e. no longer ‘owned' the country. Rather, he is a public servant BUT he had real executive powers i.e. appointed ministers, who were accountable to NA retained power to declare war and conclude peace - subject to approval appointed his own foreign ambassadors and his senior military commanders. BUT power restricted him to a purely executive role (running government) and forbade him to interfere in any way with the legislature i.e. he could never close the NA. King is given a suspensive veto - he could interfere with NAs work by using his suspensive veto. i.e. could delay laws for 4 years

Answer 40

With all of these events, it was now vital for the National Assembly to secure the moderate revolution, i.e. to secure constitutional monarchy as the form of government for the nation. Assembly declared that the CCC was not part of the Constitution of 1791 - this helped to get Louis to accept Constitution. They also softened punishments meted out to refractory clergy. The King ratified the Constitution on 14 September 1791. He declared ‘The revolution is over.’

Answer 41

Nation = divided over the issue of the Church thousands of priests had been transformed into enemies of the revolution - the revolution had created its own counter-revolutionaries. King's reputation was now poisoned with suspicions of treason, which were given vivid expression in hostile cartoons - revolutionaries had polarised into those wanting Constitutional Monarchy and those wanting a republic. Republican movement – had become linked with radicalism and the dangerous idea of revolution - republican movement increasingly associated with the Parisian popular movement whose agenda was to depose the King and install a republic. Revolution had divided on more than ideological grounds: revolutionaries had fired on revolutionaries - people realised that within this one revolution was a second. Men who had tried to protect the monarchy, i.e. Mirabeau and Lafayette = discredited. Radical politicians = untouched by the scandal enjoyed increasing support from the working- class popular movement. E.g. Robespierre took charge of the Jacobin Club when nearly all the other deputies walked out and proceeded to rebuild it and consolidate his popular support. Foreign rulers began conclude that the lives of the royal Family might be under threat and prepared to become involved.

Answer 42

Acceptance of constitution by King lead to end of Constituent Assembly and formation of Legislative assembly There was suspicion and hatred amongst the deputies and they could not cooperate: King’s reluctance to accept proposals Suspicions of King’s commitment Fear of counter-revolutionary plots To prevent political opponents dominating the next assembly, Robespierre proposed self-denying ordinance No member of constituent assembly could sit for the legislative assembly 745 members elected Most bourgeoisie Few nobles as they had retired and were lying low, waiting for better times 23 clergy No peasants, artisans, few businessmen order: Left: favoured republic- 136, most from Jacobin and some Girondins Right: supported limited monarchy- 264 who were members of Feuillant Club and thought the revolution was over centre: neither left or right- 345

Answer 43

Having lived through a tumultuous year, France’s political leaders, new and old, perceived the need to foster a sense of unity among the people. The King’s more liberal ministers in particular hoped to prevent attempts to roll back the changes made since the spring of 1789 and to limit momentum for farther–reaching challenges to the monarchy. To this end, the Marquis de La Fayette organized a public pageant in Paris to celebrate the "federation" of the different regions and social groups of France.

Answer 44

The festival was a sign of unity, optimism and support of the revolution. The event endorsed the reforms of the National Assembly to date The king led the oath-taking in front of a crowd estimated at 350,000. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette received cheers from the crowds.

Answer 45

Vetoed several revolutionary decrees Fled Paris on the night of 20 June 1791, possible aiming to depart France - was captured at Varennes Overthrown in insurrection (10 August 1792) and tried by the National Convention (December 1792) Sentenced to death by the Convention and guillotined on 21 January 1793

Answer 46

Radical journalist Advocated on behalf of the sans-culottes Edited L’Ami du Peuple (Friend of the People), newspaper supported by the Jacobin and Cordeliers clubs Became a ‘revolutionary martyr’ after being assassinated in his bath by Charlotte Corday (immortalised in Jacques-Louis David’s famous painting The Death of Marat)

Answer 47

Lawyer who became a leader of the Cordeliers Member of the insurrectionary Paris Commune which orchestrated the 10 August 1792 attack on the Tuileries Palace, resulting in the overthrow of Louis XVI Member of the Committee of Public Safety (April-July 1793) who argued for relaxation of the revolution’s emergency measures Charged with conspiracy and guillotined after a sham trial

Answer 48

Lawyer and deputy to the Estates-General and later the National Convention Member of the Jacobin Club and supporter of the execution of Louis XVI Leading figure in the Committee of Public Safety, associated with the Reign of Terror Arrested after his speech to the convention on 26 July 1794 (8 Thermidor) and guillotined two days later

Answer 49

A constitutional monarchist and founding member of the Feuillant Club in 1791 which supported the constitution of that year Lost popularity after his troops opened fire on demonstrators at the Champ de Mars on 17 July 1791 in the wake of the king’s flight to Varennes Denounced the influence of the Jacobin Club Defected to Austria in August 1792 and remained there until 1797

Answer 50

Municipal government of Paris formed after the overthrow of the city’s Bureau and Provost of Merchants on July 14th 1789. filled with bourgeois delegates headed by Jean-Sylvain Bailly. hearing petitions and providing services. The formal authority of the Commune came from a May 21st 1790 decree, which divided Paris into 48 sections. Each section elected three delegates to the Commune’s General Council. The leadership of the Commune changed significantly on August 10th 1792, when radical Jacobins like Danton, Desmoulins and Hébert gained control of the council and declared themselves a ‘revolutionary Commune’. From this point, the Commune became closely associated with the sections, the Jacobins and the sans culottes, its actions contributing to revolutionary violence and challenging the authority of the national government. 6. Became more radical as the revolution progressed. Opposed by the Girondins, who tried to curb its growing influence on the Assembly and later on the Convention.

Answer 51

The national parliament that established France as a republic (elected September 1792) Comprised 745 deputies divided into two factions: Girondins (moderate, provincial deputies) and Montagnards (radical, mostly Parisian and Jacobin Club members). Non-aligned deputies were known as ‘the Plain’ Tried and guillotined the former king, Louis XVI in 1793 Dissolved in 26 October 1795 (4 Brumaire Year IV) after enactment of the Constitution of the Year III

Answer 52

Loose affiliation of Legislative Assembly deputies named after the Gironde region in south-west France and associated with the group’s spokesman, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, along with Condorcet, Brissot, Roland and Isnard One of the two major groupings in the National Convention, in opposition to the Montagnards Supported the declaration of war against Austria in April 1792 Expelled from the Convention in June 1793; Girondin leaders were arrested, tried and guillotined in October 1793

Answer 53

Faction in the National Convention, opposed to the Girondins Many members belonged to the Jacobin Club Supported by the Paris Commune and sans-culottes After dominating the Convention in 1793, the group lost influence with the fall of Robespierre

Answer 54

One of the first clubs formed by patriotic deputies to the National Assembly Radical from the outset, the club soon established branches across France and Europe Members became Montagnards and dominated the Legislative Assembly, National Convention, Committees of Public Safety and Committee of General Security Associated with policies of the Terror, the club closed in November 1794 Motto: Live Free or Die

Answer 55

Radical club founded in 1790, dominated by Danton and Desmoulins Enjoyed high membership on account of low fees Supported by Marat’s paper L’Ami du people (Friend of the People) and Hebert’s newspaper Le Pere Duchesne (Father Duchesne) Played a major role in orchestrating the deposition of Louis XVI through the insurrection of 10 August 1792

Answer 56

club for constitutional monarchists, formed in response to divisions caused by a petition to depose Louis XVI after his capture at Varennes Members took a leading part in drafting the 1791 Constitution Initially the largest club in the Legislative Assembly; led by Antoine Barnave Ceased during the Terror

Answer 57

Mobile, well-organised and radical (often violent) group that called for significant social and political change after the revolution Named ‘without culottes’ as they wore trousers instead of the breeches (culottes) and stockings of the elite Made a virtue of plain dress and self-identified as people who served no-one. Mostly made up of workers, shopkeepers, petty traders, craftsmen and the poor

Answer 58

Key executive body of the republic, responsible for internal and external affairs (established 1793) Included 12 members elected for one month by the National Convention Robespierre replaced Danton in the Committee on 27 July 1793 Abolished in 1795 after the fall of Robespierre.

Answer 59

the whole nation was bitterly divided over the issue of the church, and thousands of priests had been labelled as ‘refractory clergy’ the King’s reputation was poisoned by suspicions of treason the revolutionaries had polarised into those supporting a constitutional monarch and those preferring a republic the republican movement increasingly associated with the Parisian popular movement, which aimed to depose the King and install a republic when revolutionary fired on revolutionary, division was created in society power shifted to new political figures - those who tried to protect the monarchy (e.g. Mirabeau, Lafayette) were discredited while radical politicians enjoyed increased support from the sans-culottes Robespierre controlled the Jacobin Club and consolidated his popular support foreign rulers reconsidered the revolution and concluded that the lives of the royal family were under threat.

Answer 60

Proposed by Robespierre Passed by nat Constituent Assembly 1791 NCA could not stand for legislative assembly To prevent any entrenchment of power in new government LA had no old wisdom or experience

Answer 61

The constitution was the culmination of two years’ hard work. Some of the things it outlined were: Constitutional monarchy with the king retained but his powers limited by an elected Legislative Assembly (single chamber of government) Limitations to the King’s powers including a suspensive veto A guarantee of the ‘natural and civil rights’ of citizens - equal employment opportunity (utility and merit), fair and proportionate taxation, equality before the law, liberty Division of France into 83 departments. Definition of a French citizen. Limitation of the franchise (‘active’ citizens) Social welfare for the ‘able-bodied poor’ and the ‘infirm poor’ as well as ‘foundlings’. Public and free education

Answer 62

the governing body of France between October 1791 and September 1792. It replaced the National Constituent Assembly. formed under the Constitution of 1791, which created a constitutional monarchy with Louis XVI as the head of state. contained 745 deputies. Almost half were Jacobin republicans while the rest were Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) and political moderates. the dominant faction in the Assembly was the Girondins, headed by Jacques Brissot. This faction led the push for war with Austria, which was eventually declared in April 1792. The 745 members elected were almost wholly bourgeois

Answer 63

Largest faction was led by Jaques Brissot A lawyer turned political journalist Letters dedicated to the revolution Considered a radical in 1789 when he sat centre-left Moderate republican who wanted to abolish monarchy and in 1791 the constitution In favour of war to collapse the monarchy and to export revolutionary ideas Followers known as Brissotins, Girondins or Rolandists

Answer 64

Challenge: Resistance from refractory priests - growing conflict over the church and increasing resistance from priests. Response: 29 November 1791 - Decree against refractory priests issued (vetoed by king 19 December) 27 May 1792 - Decree orders deportation of refractory priests who refuse to swear allegiance to CCC (vetoed by king 11 June) challenge: Increasing emigration of nobles, who joined the armies gathering on the borders of France - some 6000 army officers had fled the country by late 1791 (60% of officers) response: 9 November 1791 - Decree against emigres declaring that nobles remaining abroad after 1 January 1792 were enemies of the revolution who deserved execution (vetoed by king 12 December)

Answer 65

``` Power to appoint ministers Power of suspensive veto Created controversy by blocking laws In its first weeks, the Legislative Assembly drafted legislation to take action against émigrés and non-juring priests. It passed these laws on November 8th and November 29th respectively – but both were vetoed by the king. Each veto caused protest ```

Answer 66

Leopold Emperor of Austria (brother of Marie) with King Fredrick William of Prussia issued the declaration 27 August 1791 Their Majesties, the Emperor and the King of Prussia, having heard the wishes and representations of Monsieur, the Count of Artois, jointly declare that they view the situation in which the King of France currently finds himself as a subject of common interest for all of Europe's sovereigns. They hope that this interest can not fail to be recognised by the powers from whom assistance is being requested. Consequently, jointly with their respective Majesties, they will use the most efficient means in relation to their strengths to place the King of France in a position to be totally free to consolidate the bases of a monarchical government that shall be as amenable to the rights of sovereigns as it is to the well-being of the French nation. In this case then, their said Majesties, the Emperor and the King of Prussia are resolved to act quickly, in mutual agreement, and with the forces necessary to achieve the proposed and common goal. Meanwhile, they shall issue their troops the necessary orders to prepare them for action.

Answer 67

It is a declaration of war It is a response to the brother of the king’s feelings on the situation Wish to place the King of France back into a place of power using whatever means needed- thought this was for France’s wellbeing

Answer 68

A large power against France Both above France and very close Prussia has a strong military

Answer 69

Declaring war | Felt threatened

Answer 70

Orchestrated by Brissot and the Girondins Though war would refocus the revolution, inflame nationalism and considerate power of those parties Brissot: prevent foreign governments from harbouring emigrated nobles and they see it as a way to safeguard the revolution (threat of invasion will strengthen nationalism) Radicals: carry revolutionary freedoms to oppressed people in Europe, will force King, nobles and priests to loyalty, unify people in patriotism, win over the independents by patriotic appeal The King and Marie-Antoinette: cynically encouraged it to allow foreign armies to invade France, crush the revolution and restore the monarchy. Conservative deputies: hoped success would strengthen the monarchy Lafayette: hoped to regain popularity through new military exploits. Robespierre and some Jacobins: if they won, nobles like Lafayette would be strengthened and if they lost, foreign armies would crush the revolution (should not go to war). He could only speak to the Jacobins because of self-denying ordinance. Feuillants lost power and Brissotins gained it Feuillants were blamed for the massacre Brissotins convinced the nation that war could unite them and inflame patriotic spirit. People had to fight to protect the revolution Brissotins scared people that if they did nothing, the revolution would be lost- conspiracies about immigrants and officers who left their troops The Feuillants became seen as monarchists and began to lose popularity Barnave retired and others fled or took up other posts 9 March 1792, Louis dismissed them and replaced them with Brissotins Self-denying ordinance also caused a power shift Brissotins were more in favour with people and wanted war According to Rees, ‘it is doubtful whether [the Girondins] would have gained the support of the majority of deputies without the bungling of Austria and Prussia.’ What happened? On November 29th 1791 the Legislative Assembly, hearing of an alliance between French émigrés and foreign monarchs, urged Louis XVI to condemn these émigrés and initiate military action against them. Louis agreed to threaten German princes who were sheltering emigrated nobles (14 December 1791) The Austrian Emperor, outraged by the ultimatum, promised to defend them (21 December 1791) The Assembly cancel existing Austrian-French peace treaties and instruct the King to demand that Austria renounce all treaties hostile to France or face war. On 7 February 1792 Austria and Prussia become allies, anticipating that France will have neither the will nor the ability to resist Austrian pressure In March 1792, the King is forced to dismiss his pacifist Feuillant ministers and appoint a more radical (pro-war) government The French declare war on 20 April 1792. Known as the Revolutionary War

Answer 71

10 years Lost 1.4 million people Altered direction of Revolution

Answer 72

Austria and Prussia had excellent professional armies French troops were inexperienced and did not have proper leadership- lots of volunteers Only 140 000 troops Many defectors or fleers Poor equipment Fear of treason meant they were not obedient Short supply of ammunition 29 April 1792, retreated in panic and murdered their commander May 1792 defeat was accepted France’s three commanders suggested peace Austria and Prussia invaded Did not trust leaders- not the trained nobles because they left

Answer 73

Economic problems added to fears Harvests were poor Inflation of prices Did not trust leaders People had fears that the government and king had betrayed them with war All foreigners were under police surveillance

Answer 74

Fear of a coup d’etat by the King lead to the king’s bodyguard being disbanded Regular soldiers were ordered out of Paris Replacing them were 20 000 National Guards from the provinces to safeguard the revolution (decree of 8 June 92) A republican revolutionary force They sang the Marseillaise New military presence in Paris

Answer 75

Series of military defeats cause radical solutions to be sought by the government, assembly and fearful public Fear and paranoia about conspirators and foreigners War losses fed into ‘second revolution’ 10 August 1792 Introduction of conscription sparked civil war in the Vendee region

Answer 76

The fédérés are a potential force against Louis Uses constitutional power of suspensive veto to delay the decree of 8 June Brissotins/Girondins protest and Louis dismisses them Lafayette ordered radical clubs be curbed Fear that Lafayette would lead a coup for the king

Answer 77

The moderates within the Assembly, who feared that popular violence would overcome the forces of law and order; and Popular leaders who increasingly feared a counter-revolution from traitors within France.

Answer 78

Crowds invaded Tuileries Palace | Forced King to don the Phrygian cap and toast to the health of the nation

Answer 79

Sections allow ‘passive’ citizens into their meetings This undermines the constitution of 91 and shows the awareness of the sans-culottes Sections called a demonstration (anniversary of TCO) to defend revolution Cordeliers mobilise people The people march on the legislative assembly- this has been successful in getting change before The crowd then moves to the palace Made Louis wear the bonnet and toast the nation People demand end to veto and recall of brissotins Louis refused Brissotins become more conservative Jacobins become more radical

Answer 80

Some leaders were women Theroigne de Mericourt, Etta Palm and Pauline Leon- members of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women Wanted equal citizenship Wanted to vote

Answer 81

The homeland was declared in danger All citizens must sacrifice themselves for its defence Fear tactics A league of kings has been formed in order to destroy it; their battalions are advancing, they are numerous, subject to rigorous discipline, and trained long ago in the art of war...Our armies are yet barely brought to completion, an imprudent sense of security moderated the spirit of patriotism too early; the recruitment which was ordered did not have as much success as your representatives had hoped. Interior agitation increases the difficulty of our position...Make haste, citizens, save liberty and avenge your glory. The National Assembly declares that the homeland is in danger…

Answer 82

Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Austrian-Prussian armies issued a manifesto that: Declared his support for Louis and his full ‘liberty’ Threatened retribution and ‘exemplary and every-memorable vengeance’ on the people of Paris should the royals be harmed This provoked the demands that Louis be deposed as it was considered proof of the King’s treachery

Answer 83

Terminate the anarchy Check attacks on the throne and church Give power, security and liberty back to the king

Answer 84

The sane people of France are supposedly disgusted by the new way that the nation is run (no more orders) As many nobles and clergy are for this change, Duke Brunswick does not appear to have a very good understanding of French society

Answer 85

Shows a desire to return Louis to absolute power All people must obey him or suffer military punishment with no pardon All people serving him must be loyal with their lives Destruction will fall on Paris if this is not obeyed

Answer 86

Brunswick Manifesto prompted an uprising against the monarchy

Answer 87

Attack on the Palace Tuilleries Attack by republican soldiers and people of Paris who wanted to depose the King Fuelled by poor economy, foreign aggression, fears of invasion, the king’s use of veto and rumours of the another royal flee August 9th the Paris commune was seized, a move planned by Paris sections and radical clubs The King took refuge in the legislative assembly and most soldiers at Tuileries were slaughtered

Answer 88

Transformed from a constitutional monarchy to a burgeoning republic The moderate Paris Commune was overthrown and refilled with radicals from the sections. The deposed king and his family were imprisoned in the Temple in northern Paris, an ancient Paris fortress used as a prison. The Legislative Assembly, under pressure from the Commune, voted itself into oblivion and prepared to hand power to a new national convention. The Constitution of 1791 was abandoned and its distinctions between ‘active’ and ‘passive citizens’ were discarded; elections for the new convention would be based on universal suffrage. On August 25th, the Assembly voted to abolish all feudal dues without compensation, unless the seigneur could produce a valid contract (which few of them could). The revolutionary Commune, now under the control of Danton and other radicals, held sway in the capital, silencing Royalist and moderate publishers and arresting scores of nobles and non-juring priests. The Marquis de Lafayette, outraged at the events of August 10th, tried to organise a counter-revolution to restore the monarchy. Unable to drum up enough support, and facing arrest himself, Lafayette fled France and the revolution and ended up a prisoner of the Austrians. “Bloodshed was not the unfortunate by-product of the revolution, it was the source of its energy”- Simon Shama

Answer 89

Assembly debated in a hall crowded with working people King was suspended not deposed- left the next assembly to decide Interim government of 6 ministers who put in all laws that Louis blocked Organised the National Conventio

Answer 90

Committee of Vigilance 17 August Extraordinary powers to arrest counter-revolutionaries Rounded up 1000 anti-revolutionaries and refectory priests Danton (minister of justice) allowed for home visits to find these “enemies” Nobles feared for their lives Monarchists and constitutional monarchists hid Left 300 deputies and the Girondins in control They deported refectory priest and seized noble land to divide up to be sold Also removed last feudal dues without compensation to get people on side

Answer 91

Jacobins gathered power in the insurrectionary commune Could threaten the Assembly with popular action King and family were taken to temple prison

Answer 92

2 September 1792, France was faltering at war The Austrian army captured last fortress before Paris - no defences between the population of Paris and the Duke of Brunswick’s threat. Stories of atrocities (women raped, babies impaled on spikes) caused panic. Also scared of a threat within. Paris began intensive military preparations.

Answer 93

September massacres Sparked by fear of invasion September 2 1792 and continued for a few days The targets of these riots were the city’s prisons. These prisons housed, among others, suspected counter-revolutionaries, royalist soldiers, members of the Swiss Guard, clergymen and former nobles. Press was spreading rumours that prisons housed conspirators Marat urged people to attack - refectory priests and Swiss Guard. The riots were precipitated by the Austro-Prussian invasion of France and their victory at Verdun. This appeared to open a path for the coalition forces to march on Paris. The violence of early September saw between 1,100 and 1,400 people murdered. This prompted outrage in Britain and among moderate revolutionaries. It also fuelled a new wave of émigrés. Politically, the September Massacres were endorsed by radical Jacobins like Robespierre, who justified them as a legitimate revolutionary act, an expression of the will of the people. [The September Massacres] was a mysterious event, defying precise analysis, yet it seems to have been largely the product of a panic-fear engendered by the threat of counter-revolution and invasion. Rude

Answer 94

Siege of Longwy (20-23 August 1792) was the first military success Were about to reach Paris until this Brunswick was forced back across the boarder Longwy was abandoned to the French on 19th October Battle of Jemappes (6 November 1792), French army defeated Austrians and captured most of Belgium

Answer 95

International war was radicalising the revolution, not unifying it as hoped by the Brissotins. Popular movement is more militant and independent than anybody thought possible.

Answer 96

After overthrow of Louis, the constitutional monarchists (2/3) did not feels safe 10 August uprising was a rejection of the Assembly and the King Deputies went into hiding which left the Girondins in charge Remaining deputies appointed new ministers including Danton as Minister of Justice In final 6 weeks the assembly did what the Revolutionary Commune wanted including more radical measures: Refractory priests who did not leave France were to be deported to the French colony of Guiana Abolition without compensation of all feudal dues unless the seigneur was able to produce title-deeds detailing specific rights. (effectively ending the feudal system) House-to-house searches ordered for arms and suspects - many were arrested Divorce legalised. Registration of births, deaths and marriages became a state responsibility rather than a Church one. (undermines power of the church) “Louis might have saved his throne had he been willing to accept a more minor role in government or had he been less prone to vacillation.” - McPhee

Answer 97

On 20 September 1792, the National Convention met for the first time. Royal documents found in the Tuileries after 10 August proved that the King had behaved treacherously by maintaining links with France’s enemies. On 21-2 September 1792, the monarchy in France was abolished and a republic was proclaimed.

Answer 98

The National Convention was the revolutionary government of France between the abolition of the monarchy in September 1792 and the creation of the Directory in November 1795. The Convention was elected on a broader franchise than the Legislative Assembly, with all males over 21, in employment or receiving income eligible to vote. The 749 deputies of the Convention were composed of radical Jacobins (Montagnards - The Mountain), Girondins, and moderates who sat in the Plain. These factions hardened and divided further in the Convention’s first months. Note: the deputies are all republicans - the divisions between the voting blocs were more about power than opposing policies. In its first few months, the Convention created the French Republic, managed the revolutionary war, tried and executed the king and wrestled with Parisian radicalism and economic policy. The Convention also had to work towards new constitutional arrangements now that the Constitution of 1791 was inoperable. ``` Radical revolutionaries La Montagne (mountain) ``` ``` Independent deputies La Marais (plain or swamp) ``` Moderate revolutionaries Girondins “the composition of the Convention testifies to the social transformation wrought by the Revolution. Former nobles (23) and Catholic clergy (46) were conspicuously few; instead the Convention was composed of professional men, officials, landowners, and businessmen, with a sprinkling of farmers and artisans.” - McPhee changes: Second estate has left First estate has been kicked out for being refectory Now every man can votes so who gets votes for changes

Answer 99

Established a republic More radical than 1791 Enacted in June and endorsed by a referendum Suspended in October and never formally implemented Key Ideas: ON CITIZENSHIP Every man born and domiciled in France, fully twenty-one years of age is a citizen. ON POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY Popular sovereignty includes all French citizens. ON THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL There shall be an Executive Council composed of twenty-four members. ON CRIMINAL JUSTICE In criminal matters citizens may be judged only on an indictment received by juries of decreed by the Legislative body. ON PUBLIC TAXES No citizen is exempt from the honourable obligation of contributing to public expenses. ON THE GUARANTEE OF RIGHTS The Constitution guarantees all Frenchmen equality, liberty, security, ...freedom of worship, public schooling Article 35. When the government violates the rights of the people, insurrection is the most sacred of rights and the most indispensable of duties for the people and for each portion of the people.

Answer 100

New republican ideals everywhere abandoning the terms Monsieur and Madame in favour of the more egalitarian Citoyen and Citoyenne Proclamation of Republic 1972 became year 1 Months named after natural elements Days named seed, tree, flower, fruit, animal or tool Replaced Christian connotations Abandoned by Napoleon in 1806

Answer 101

In late 1792, the decision over the fate of the King became the focus of the broader power struggle between the Girondins and the Jacobins (Montagnards). ``` Arguments of the Girondins: Fate to be decided by referendum Should not be killed Should be reprieved “The King shall be classed as a citizen, and as such he may be accused and tried for act subsequent to his abdication” ``` Arguments of the Jacobins: To spare him would be to admit his special nature Should be killed- ‘the people’ had already judged him Should be tried like any other

Answer 102

‘I forgive my enemies. I trust that my death will be for the happiness of my people, but I grieve for France and I fear she may suffer the anger of the Lord’. Body and head were taken to a parish cemetery and thrown into a 15 feet deep pit where they were consumed with quick lime For- Marat: “notorious…crimes” “concealed himself behind a mask of hypocrisy” “instead of using authority confided in him to protect his countrymen, he used it to oppress them” “robbed citizens” Against- London Times “The Republican tyrants of France have now carried their bloody purposes to the uttermost diabolical stretch of savage cruelty” “murdered”

Answer 103

The rise of the Jacobins International Response Britain was critical Europe was shocked Britain expelled French ambassador to which the national convention declared war on Britain Russia broke off diplomatic relations Austria and Prussia ordered an execration in war Americans (helped by Louis to be free) mourned his death but not his monarchy

Answer 104

First Coalition- anti-French alliance created by Britain and consisting of Holland, Spain, Piedmont, Naples, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Portugal France was now surrounded by nations that did not like it ``` RESPONSE: The Levee En Masse Mass conscription of French citizens for service in Revolutionary War Issued by convention in August 1793 Unmarried able-bodied men 18-25 Significantly increased army Civilian population was turned to support armies Not popular, desertion was high Turned tide of war ```

Answer 105

By late 1792, only 50% of taxes were paid, and revenues plummeted. Mistake the government made in addressing the problem: Issued more assignat when debt occurred Consequences of mistake: Value dropped Prices increased People hoarded coins causing a shortage in hard currency

Answer 106

Factors that led to food crisis: War drew on supplies War interrupted international trade Who were the enrages? Ultra-radical group of sans-culottes Rioted about food How did the financial crisis add to this crisis? People demanded food for the old price Shop keepers often had to do this RESPONSE: The Law of Maximum The Law of the Maximum was an attempt by the National Convention to fix price levels, in order to appease the sans culottes and their supporters in the Jacobin movement.

Answer 107

Why peasants rebelled against the revolution: Decided they were worse off for revolution Reintroduction of conscription- leave farm Could not afford church land and resented those who could buy more than they needed Churches were closed in reorganisation of the church Did not like revolutionary priests How the government responded: Jacobins sent revolutionary armies Very cruel warfare

Answer 108

Did not want to stop revolution but wanted to protect it from direct democracy in Paris Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseille, Toulon Believed in representative democracy Wanted to protect convention with an army and seized local governments Convention crushed them Took soldiers from the war to put them down, increased fear

Answer 109

After contributing to radicalism, Marat was murdered by Charlotte Corday (girondin supporter) Death contributed to Reign of Terror

Answer 110

Jacobins and supporters by Autumn 93 embracing cult of democracy and egalitarianism At centre were sans-culottes who were celebrated as heroes Propaganda presented them as hardworking, humble, politically alert, ready to take up arms etc.

Answer 111

urban workers

Answer 112

Favouring of violence. The sans-culottes often used violence in their protests and raids to get the government to listen to them, especially when hungry and poor.

Answer 113

The sans-culottes attended political meetings and voted. Their aim was to be recognised for their use and to get the food etc. they needed. Jacobins and Revolutionary commune speak for them. They are violent but they see that as direct democracy.

Answer 114

The popular movement became more radical due to fear.

Answer 115

They were seen as a powerful force that they needed the support of to be voted for and not to be attacked by. They won this support by doing what they wanted (making the CPS).

Answer 116

Concerned about food Support price control, requisitioning of grain and gov assistance for poor Involved in overthrow of Girondins Pressured the Montagnards into taking emergency and terroristic measures to protect the revolution ``` “Freedom is nothing but a vain phantom when one class of men can starve another with impunity. Equality is nothing but a vain phantom when the rich, through monopoly, exercise the right of life or death over their like. The republic is nothing but a vain phantom when the counter-revolution can operate every day through the price of commodities, which three quarters of all citizens cannot afford without shedding tears.” - Jacques Roux, addressing the national convention in 1793 ``` Why did their theories frighten the Bourgeoisie deputies? Lose power of property Lose power over revolution

Answer 117

Robespierre wished to create people who were virtuous and would not harm the revolution Should give up personal freedom for general will Inspiration from images of virtues of ancient Greece and Rome

Answer 118

Speech February 5 where he justified terror All that tends to concentrate and debase them into selfish egotism, to awaken an infatuation for trivial things, and scorn for great ones, must be rejected or repressed by you. In the system of the French revolution, that which is immoral is impolitic, and that which tends to corrupt is counterrevolutionary. Weakness, vices, and prejudices are the road to monarchy… If the driving force of popular government in peacetime is virtue, that of popular government during a revolution is both virtue and terror: virtue, without which terror is destructive; terror, without which virtue is impotent.

Answer 119

Part of creating a republic of virtue Replacing old religion symbols with new revolutionary iconology Closing churches and getting metal from them for war McPhee writes in The French Revolution 1789-1799 that the dechristianisation campaign “coincided and was often identified with the activities of forty-five armées révolutionnaires (in all 30,000 - 40,000 men) active in fifty-six departments in the autumn of 1793” ``` Priests had to renounce priesthood Many had to marry 20 000 priests abdicated their calling 5000 married “long live the Catholic religion!” ```

Answer 120

5 October 1793 Republican Calendar September 1792 dated first day of year 1 of the republic Reason was the aim 10 day weeks 12 months with names of seasons Religious days were replaced with new names

Answer 121

Uniform decimal system was introduced | 1 august 1793

Answer 122

Mocked priests and other counter-revolutionaries

Answer 123

The Cult of the Supreme Being was an artificial religion, developed by Robespierre and given formal status by the National Convention in May 1794. In Robespierre’s mind, the Supreme Being was a deist god who created the world according to natural laws. The purpose of the cult was to educate the people and teach them morality and virtue. The high point of the Supreme Being movement was a Festival, held in Paris and other locations in early June. It was marked by symbolism, pageantry and speeches celebrating the Enlightenment and regeneration. The Paris Festival featured a gigantic artificial mountain on the Champ de Mars and featured speeches and gestures from Robespierre, who at his insistence played a leading role. The Festival itself was popular with the people, however, the Cult of the Supreme Being failed to take hold, and Robespierre’s central role only increased his unpopularity among other deputies of the Convention.

Answer 124

Marat, Chalier, le Peletier Celebration of heroism of Francois Bara and Joseph-Agricol Viala, 13 year old boys killed fighting counter-revolutionaries To replace saints Marat was painted as Jesus was when he died

Answer 125

“Government by Terror came into being because of the need to organise the Republic against internal and external threats to its survival. There were two periods of terror and both were associated with the war abroad. The first began with the attack on the Tuileries on 10 August 1792, included the September Massacres, and came to an end with the Battle of Valmy, when the allied invasion was held up and then pushed back. The second period began with the journee of 31 May-2 June 1793, when some Girondin deputies were arrested, and ended with the execution of Robespierre and his supporters in July 1794. During the start of this second Terror, French armies were doing badly and the country was once again faced with invasion.” Rees

Answer 126

Some historians call the period between 17 August and the 6 September 1792 the First Terror.

Answer 127

Assembly debated in a hall crowded with working people King was suspended not deposed- left the next assembly to decide Interim government of 6 ministers who put in all laws that Louis blocked Organised the National Convention which was elected by universal male suffrage

Answer 128

"October 1792 Response to September Massacres Response to revolutionary journées " "bring traitors to justice ‘Let us be terrible, in order that the people are not so’- Danton"

Answer 129

11 March 1793 "hasten the trials and execution suspects Judges lacked independence "

Answer 130

March 1793 "make sure NC decrees were being followed in all provinces First 82 Raise troops Began to act as local agents for CGS and CPS Enforced dictatorship Terrorised Increased in December 1793 "

Answer 131

2 October 1792 ``` "identifying and arresting suspects Issued civic ‘vertu’ Supervise treatment of suspects Surveillance and police Send suspects to RT Fouché ran a network of spies Opposition to Robespierre and involved in downfall Protect from internal enemies" ```

Answer 132

6 April 1793 "conduct war inside and outside Maintain supplies for army and people Secretive 12, kept no minutes Gave orders to ROM who did not report to convention Unlimited powers Law of Frimaire Controlled ministers, generals, foreign policy and local government Supervise and speed up activities of ministers Had powers renewed every-month Robespierre Barére was spokesperson and in charge of munitions Carnot directed war effort After fall, power was limited Believed in a strong, centralised government "

Answer 133

“is the war of liberty against its enemies. Revolutionary governments owe good citizens the protection of the state; to the enemies of the people, it owes only death.”

Answer 134

“by early April [the Jacobins] were ready to formulate a programme of their own to win the support of the sections, and wrest leadership … . Robespierre publicly invited the sections to present themselves at the bar of the Convention and ‘force us to arrest the disloyal deputies.’ The response was immediate and, within a week, the sections had ‘named’ twenty-two deputies of the Gironde, whose removal from the Assembly would both meet the popular demand for a purge and assure the Mountain of a working majority. By mid-April three-quarters of the sections had given their support, many of the further stirred to action by the Girondins folly in summoning Marat - the most popular of all the people’s leaders - before the Revolutionary Tribunal from which, however, he was soon released and carried in triumph through the streets of Paris.” - Rude

Answer 135

Girondins and Montagnards votes in blocks and argued over policy National Guard and Sans Culottes pressured Montagnards to expel the Girondins They were arrested or exiled Events that lead up: anti-Girondin riots 31 May to 2 June were instigated by Cordeliers, Marat 27 May: angry mob raided Convention demanding release of Herbert, Varlet and removing Girondin-dominated Commission of Twelve 28 May: some prisoners were still captive. New Insurrectionary committee formed (Varlet as leader). Had militia of 30 000 sans culottes 31 May: Varlet signalled the revolutionary journées Sunday 2 June: Marat rang bell, people demanded Girondins be expelled and Twelve dissolved. 75000-10000 National Guards. Sans-culottes demanded taxes on rich, price control on grain, purging of thirty ministers and the creating of a sans-culottes army to deal with traitors. Barere refused to arrest. Cannon and guards, NC had to concede to arrests. Montagnards lead vote white most others silent. Abandoning principle that representatives were not immune to arrest in unsuccessful impeachment of Marat made Girondins hated. The Girondins and Montagnards were two political factions that emerged during the Legislative Assembly and later dominated the National Convention. The Girondins began as followers of the Jacobin orator Jacques Brissot. They were moderate Republicans who supported a revolutionary war and believed the revolution should involve the whole nation, not just Paris. The Montagnards, in contrast, were more influenced by the people of Paris, particularly the sections and the sans culottes. Their leaders included radicals like Robespierre, Marat, Couthon and Barère. The Girondins and Montagnards frequently differed and bickered over policy. By the spring of 1793, this had developed into a factional war, the Girondins initiating action against radical agitators in Paris. In early June 1793, the Montagnards emerged victorious after the Convention, surrounded by hostile soldiers and sans culottes, was intimidated into expelling its Girondinist deputies.

Answer 136

Large trading cities in south- Bordeaux, Lyons, Toulouse, Toulon, Marseilles - areas with Girondist sympathies. Conflict about centralised power and lack of local autonomy Angered by Jacobin push for a more centralised and arbitrary government in Paris Angered by the power of the sans-culottes Lyons Revolted CPS declared Lyons should be destroyed- “Lyon made war on liberty. Lyon is no more” Guillotined 26 people a day December 1793 360 died in three days Tied up in groups go 60 and shot with a cannon “what a delicious moment. How you would have enjoyed it! Worthy indeed of liberty! Wish bonjour to Robespierre” By April 1794, 2000 killed Bordeaux Surrendered to Revolutionary Army 25 April 1793

Answer 137

Sans-culottes had political and economic demands Inflation and high bread prices Demanded set prices Committee wanted a free market economy but agreed for special wartime measures May 1793 grain controls but farmers sold grain to black market so stock was low- sans culottes called for terror to punish farmers and merchants Committee made hoarding a capital offence and made public granaries- did not work August, inflation increased and drought stuck Enrages emerged Jacques Roux and Hebert called for higher taxes, death for hoarders and arrest of political suspects- influenced sans-culottes 5 September sans-culottes demanded to have a sans-culotte revolutionary army to track down hoarders and political suspects- deputies agreed to pacify CPS tracked down Roux and he committed suicide 29 September a ‘general maximum’ was passed to enforce wages and price controls throughout France- this concession kept Committee and Convention in power over powerful sans-culottes Committee and Convention called for Terror to maintain revolution January 1793 Jacobin Lepeletier and July Marat were assassinated- all were vulnerable

Answer 138

``` 1 August 1793 - Barère (member of the CPS) gives the order to subdue the rebellion in the Vendee: Burn the forests Raze the houses Remove the livestock Slaughter the rebels ```

Answer 139

crowd, incited by Roux, gather before the Hotel de Ville on 4 September to demand bread and higher wages This was the site of the Paris Commune Legislative beginning of the Terror Sans-culottes Supported the mobilisation of a revolutionary army and destroying hoarders Herbert and the Revolutionary Commune Inspired the sans-culottes Convention Allowed for an army to track down hoarding and counter-revolutionaries and de-christianisation Jacobin and CPS Barere: “Terror is the order of the day. This is how to do away instantly with both royalists and moderates and the restless, counter-revolutionary scum. The royalists want blood, well, they shall have the blood of the conspirators, the likes of Brissot and Marie Antoinette. It will be an operation for special Revolutionary Tribunals.”

Answer 140

The Convention immediately authorised the formation of a Parisian armée révolutionnaire consisting mainly of sans-culottes. In total, 56 other unauthorised armies were set up in the provinces between September and December 1793. The purpose was to: Confront counter-revolutionary activity and organise the defense of the Republic. Ensure the food supplies of Paris and the large provincial cities Round up deserters, hoarders, refractory priests, religions ‘fanatics’, political suspects and royalist rebels Mobilise the nation’s resources for the war effort by confiscating church silver and bells Establish revolutionary ‘justice’ in the areas of the south and west. The armée révolutionnaire were central to the campaign of dechristianisation (see slides regarding cultural revolution for more on this).

Answer 141

CGS, CPS, Revolutionary Tribunal were supported by law Identify and condemn traitors Suspected person were taken into custody Local Watch Committees made lists, arrested and confiscated papers Lists passed to CGS Prisoners were transferred to goals before being tried and sentenced “The ‘Law of Suspects’ (17 September) was designed to expose the unpatriotic to detention or to intimidate them into inaction.” Peter McPhee

Answer 142

On October 10th 1793, the National Convention passed the following decree, establishing emergency government and expanding the powers of the Committee of Public Safety: The Decree on Revolutionary Government - 10 October 1793 The Government The provisional government of France is revolutionary until the peace. The provisional executive council, the ministers, the generals and the constituted bodies are placed under the surveillance of the Committee of Public Safety, which will render an account thereof weekly to the Convention. Every measure of security is to be taken by the provisional executive council, under the authorisation of the Committee, which will render an account thereof to the Convention. The revolutionary laws must be executed quickly. The Government shall correspond immediately with the districts on measures of public safety. The generals in chief are to be appointed by the National Convention on the recommendation of the Committee of Public Safety Because the inertia of the government is the cause of reverses, the time allowed for the execution of decree and of the measure of public safety are set. The violations of these time periods shall be punished as an attack on liberty. Supplies The table of grain production of each district, compiled by the Committee of Public Safety, will be printed and distributed to all members of the Convention, to be put into effect without delay. The necessities of each department will be approximately evaluated and guaranteed. The superfluous supplies will be subject to requisition. The table of production of the republic will be sent to the representatives of the people, to the ministers of the marine and of the interior, and to the administrators of supplies. They shall requisition in the arrondissements assigned to them. Paris will have a special arrondissement. Requisitions for the benefit of the unproductive departments are to be authorised and regulated by the provisional executive council. Paris shall be provisioned for one year on March 1st. General Security The direction and employment of the revolutionary army shall be regulated immediately in order to repress counter-revolutionaries. The Committee of Public Safety shall present a plan to accomplish this. The council shall dispatch a garrison into cities where counter-revolutionary movements have arisen. The garrisons are to be paid and maintained by the wealthy of these cities until the peace.”

Answer 143

Jacobin Constitution suspended Political terror took three forms: The official Terror, controlled by the CPS and CGS, centred in Paris and whose victims came before the Revolutionary Tribunal. The Terror in the areas of counter-revolution and/or federalist revolt. The Terror in other parts of France, under the control of watch committees, representatives-on-mission and the revolutionary armies. The CGS was largely responsible for bringing cases before the Revolutionary Tribunal.

Answer 144

Up to September 1793, the Tribunal had heard 260 cases and pronounced 66 death sentences. Following the Decree on Revolutionary Government, a series of ‘celebrity’ trials were held which removed those regarded as enemies of the Republic. These included: Marie Antoinette on 16 October 20 leading Girondin deputies on 31 October Philippe Egalite (formerly Duc d’Orleans) on 6 November (he fell under suspicion when his son Louis-Philippe, duc de Chartres, defected to the Austrians with the French commander Charles-François du Périer Dumouriez on April 5, 1793) Mme Roland, wife of the Girondin ex-minister, 9 November.

Answer 145

war, fall of monarchy, republic- convention mandated assignat Assignat value dropped Rising prices and food shortages Maximum Price act of 1793 was to fix situation Thermedorian Convention removed controls and value dropped to nothing

Answer 146

“Nationally there were perhaps 6,000 Jacobin clubs and popular societies created during the Terror, short lived though many were” (p.125). McPhee

Answer 147

Problems that threatened republic were overcome by end 1793: The federal revolts had been crushed Food supplies were moving into towns and cities The value of the assignat was rising In the west, the defeats of the rebels at Cholet and Le Mans effectively ended the civil war in the Vendee French armies were also doing well in the war. CPSs policy for defending France was successful and Convention sought to claw back power from sans-culottes and their organisations

Answer 148

Gave the CPS and CGS full executive powers. CGS was responsible for police and internal security. The Revolutionary Tribunal, as well as the surveillance committees, came under its control. CPS had more extensive powers. In addition to controlling ministers and generals, it was to control foreign policy and purge and direct local government. Elected chief officials of the communes and departments placed under agents nationaux (national agents appointed by, and responsible to, the central government, whose role was to monitor the enforcement of all revolutionary laws. Representatives-on-mission placed under control of CPS ‘Revolutionary Government … has no room for anarchy and disorder.’ Robespierre

Answer 149

Pushed for de-christianisation and Maximum Called for terror to continue and expand Conflict with Robespierre’s centralisation of power Journee 5-6 September 1793 to place pressure on NC Factionalism and sans culotte bullying no longer permutable Robespierre was determined to end de-christianisation and supported by in this ‘foreign plot’: Hebertists accused on working for foreign powers and plotting overthrow (two foreign members)- arrested and charged several 4 February called for uprising but sans culottes did not respond 5 February 1794 Robespierre’s speech- “sovereign people…does by itself what it can do well, and by delegates what it cannot do well…what is immoral is impolitic and what corrupts in counter-revolutionary” 13 March 1794 Decree on Conspiracies placed all under arrest of military coup, plotting against security of the state and being covert royalists” 24 march- Hebert and close followers guillotined CPS had power to eliminate opposition Sans culottes no longer supported government

Answer 150

Danton wanted an end to Terror and a restoring on the Constitution of 1793, independence of local authorities and removal of government controls “should not hurt innocent people…[because they do] not have enough enthusiasm” After fall of Lyons people listened to him Convention formed Commission of Clemency to examine lists but Danton wanted more CPS power was threatened 26 march 1794, Danton and followers arrested 5 April Danton and Desmoulins were guillotined Revolutionary clubs became silent and all accepted CPS as dictator The convention also became a prisoner under terror

Answer 151

‘The Revolution is frozen’

Answer 152

Hebert was popular with sans-culottes Heberts had few Convention supporters but many from Cordeliers Club, the Commune, the Paris revolutionary army Danton and the Indulgents wanted to halt Terror and centralisation- had a huge Convention following and was a threat to the CPS Result: stifle all criticism of CPS, deputies lived in fear and did little

Answer 153

The National Convention, at Robespierre’s becoming passed the following decree, establishing the Cult of the Supreme Being The French people recognise the existence of the Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul. They recognise that the worship worthy of the Supreme Being is the practice of the duties of man. They place in the first rank of these duties [the obligation] to detest bad faith and tyranny, to punish tyrants and traitors, to rescue the unfortunate, to respect the weak, to defend the oppressed, [and] to do to others all the good that one can and not to be unjust toward anyone. Festivals shall be established to remind man of the thought of the Divinity and of the dignity of his being. They shall take their names from the glorious events of our revolution, from the virtues most dear and most useful to man and from the great benefactions of nature. The French Republic shall celebrate every year the festivals of July 14th 1789, August 10th 1792, January 21st 1793, and May 31st 1793. It shall celebrate on the days of decadi festivals to the Supreme Being and to nature, to the human race, to the French people, to the benefactors of humanity, to the martyrs of liberty, to liberty and equality, to the Republic, to the liberty of the world, to the love of country, to the hatred of tyrants and traitors, to truth, to justice, to modesty, to glory and immortality, to friendship, to frugality, to courage, to good faith, to heroism, to disinterestedness, to stoicism, to love, to conjugal love, to paternal love, to maternal tenderness, to filial piety, to childhood, to youth, to manhood, to old age, to misfortune, to agriculture, to industry, to our forefathers, to posterity, to happiness. ... 15. A festival in honour of the Supreme Being shall be celebrated upon 20 Prairial next. [Jacques-Louis] David is charged to present a plan thereof to the National Convention.”

Answer 154

17000 | Other deaths from the Vendee, imprisonment etc. would add up to 200,000

Answer 155

10 June 1794 - 27 July 1794 | Revolutionary tribunal abandoned many procedures and daily executions increased tenfold

Answer 156

Purpose: speed up process of revolutionary justice Directed against ‘enemies of the people’ Definitions of enemies was vague No witness - jurors decided Defendants were not allowed Death or acquittal were only options More people were sentenced to death in Paris by the Revolutionary Tribunal during June/July 1794 (1594, 59.3%) then in the previous 14 months of its existence.

Answer 157

“There are two Robespierres, the one a genuine patriot and a man of principle, up to May 1793 and since then, the man of ambition, the tyrant and deepest of villains” - Babeuf “The Incorruptible” Believed once that all ills came from the government not from people Once said that the “people are always right” Terror and corruption destroyed him. He was paranoid and sick

Answer 158

Catholics Cult of Supreme Being Ignored catholic doctrines, pope and ceremonies Anti-clericals feared it was a step to reintroduction of Roman Catholicism Sans-Culottes Executed Hebertists who had not applied a Maximum on waged like Robespierre did- lead to inflation Dissolution of popular societies End of direct democracy Raising of the Maximum on prices Great Terror sickened people- not seen as necessary with war gone and ‘enemies’ removed CPS and CGS CPS created police bureau with Robespierre in charge to prosecute dishonest officials- CGS controlled internal security so resented this Feared and were suspicious of Robespierre

Answer 159

Unfolded quickly in June-July 1794, following his election as the president of the National Convention on June 4th (16 Prairial). Robespierre’s appearance and self-indulgent behaviour at the head of the Festival of the Supreme Being invited ridicule and criticism from his opponents. The Law of 22 Prairial, devised by Robespierre and Couthon, escalated the Terror despite the threat of invasion and counter-revolution decreasing. A month-long absence from the National Convention allowed Robespierre’s opponents to conspire and plan a course of action to remove him. When Robespierre returned in late July he attempted to defend himself, however, the numbers in the Convention were now against him. Robespierre and his supporters were arrested, tried and guillotined on July 28th (10 Thermidor).

Answer 160

The creation of the Revolutionary Tribunals to try traitors | Representative on mission- acted as spy checking that generals and officers were doing their utmost for victory

Answer 161

Harsh laws against non-juring priests- could be deported Notre-Dame into a Temple of Reason Some representatives on a mission encouraged people to attack churches, vandalise sacred objects and prevent services Robespierre feared this would turn the people against the revolution

Answer 162

Revolutionary Committees of Vigilance, 21 March 1793 Keep an eye on foreigners and other suspects Became instruments of oppression

Answer 163

Command war effort Directed by Barere and dominated by Danton who preached reconciliation Robespierre did not initially join September 1793 crisis forced them to accept Government by Terror, exemplified by Law of Suspects which expanded definitions of what made a person a suspect

Answer 164

People angered by food shortages demanded laws and finally capital punishment against merchants who were hoarding grain

Answer 165

Jacobins encouraged the sections of Paris to order the Convention to expel ‘unpatriotic’ Girondins (October 1793) Robespierre believed that any opposition to the government would weaken it in this time of crisis Hebert and followers called for insurrection against the government and they were tried and executed (March 1794) Danton and Desmoulins demanded an end to Terror and these Indulgents were executed (April 1794)

Answer 166

Successful battle of Fleurus proved that the emergency was over Some revolutionaries feared that new laws were expanding the Terror Deputies were frightened Some radical members of the Mountain such as Reps on Mission feared they would be punished for their atrocities 23 July Robespierre made an ambitious and threatening speech ‘Thermidor Conspiracy’ turned laws against Robespierre and arrested him and followers They were executed 29 July Sans-culottes did not save them because of Jacobins removing laws like Maximum 100 other Jacobins were executed

Answer 167

The Thermidorian Reaction was 15 months between overthrow of Robespierre and formation of Directory Convention was nominated by the Plain Terror was wound back CPS was weakened ‘White Terror’- purging of Jacobins Ended the Constitutional Church and permitted freedom of religion though worship was controlled Repealed the Maximum and reissued assignats Policies were disastrous and by spring 1795 cities like Paris were in famine This led to sans culotte uprisings on May 20th where the convention was invaded

Answer 168

Emigres returned Prisoners awaiting execution (including Girondins) released Persecuted catholics seek revenge on Jacobins Those who suffered under the Terror seek retribution

Answer 169

CPS and CGS were brought under control by rotation of membership and supervision by the Convention The Legislative Committee (new body) took control of justice, law and matters of the interior These committees became parliamentary committees The Law of Suspects/Law of 22 Prarial, trial for opinion was abolished The Revolutionary Tribunal was abolished in May 1797

Answer 170

The Paris Commune was closed down and replaced by an administrative committee (August 1794) The radical 48 section meetings of Paris were tamed and reordered into 12 zones, called arrondissements and popular radicalism was discouraged When the Jacobin Club tried to fight back and demand renewed Terror, it was shut down (November 1794)

Answer 171

Wanted Terror, enforcement of Law of Suspects, exclusion of nobles and priests from public office and restricted press Louis-Marie Freron called for arms against Jacobins in Jeunesse d’oree (Gilded Youth) Released prisoners, sans-culottes, ex-hebertists and Cordeliers joined Beat up any Jacobins Busts of Marat were smashed and his remained dug up National Convention refused deputations from Jacobins

Answer 172

The execution of Robespierre was the trigger for an outpouring of anger from those who had suffered during the Terror. These included:Prisoners recently released from jail, Returned emigrated nobles, Priests angry at sale of church lands, Merchants angry at the disruption of trade The White Terror was particularly murderous in S. E. France in cities such as Marseille and Lyon. Former victims of the Terror now formed armed bands with colourful names (‘Company of the Sun’) to attack, torture and murder anybody associated with the Jacobin ‘dictatorship’. In the city of Lyon murderous gangs such as the Company of Jesus produced their own version of prison massacres, breaking into prisons to murder anybody who was a former Jacobin - and sometimes their family - or who was deemed radical in any way. They also took revenge for the sale of church property and the excesses of the de-Christianisation movement.

Answer 173

The Thermidorian Reaction might have stopped the Terror, but it did not stabilise the revolution. By 1795, much of France was torn by the White Terror. The Convention was torn between a powerful left (working-class movement) and a powerful right (nobles, priests). When threatened by the radical left, the deputies had to seek assistance from the right and vice-versa.

Answer 174

September 1795 No financial support for churches or cults Freedom of worship Churches were property of communes but could be used Ministers must follow Laws of the Republic Laws against non-juring priests remained but were slowly forgotten Lands were not restored and composition not given Some felt it waste enough and sought revenge Others urged acceptance

Answer 175

Mid 1794 France suffered worst harvest of wheat ever Food was taken by army as well as resources By mid-1795, the working people of Paris were again suffering extreme hunger and hardship due to rising bread prices. (meat increased 300%) The black market ruined the technique of government price controls, and so the Law of Maximum was lifted. (December 1794) (it wasn’t working) This lead to higher prices and greater desperation The revolutionary assignat also fell to 20% of its value. Wheat was imported from Africa but still not enough By April 1795 prices had risen 750% above what they were in April 1790 Sans-culottes began uprising in April and May 1795

Answer 176

HE JOURNÉE OF GERMINAL, April 1795. Hunger caused bread riots and attacks on shops / turned into unplanned uprising of desperate sans-culottes / invaded the Convention and demanded the return of the democratic Constitution of 1793 and the provision of bread. They also demanded an end to the White Terror, and insisted that the groups of gilded youths be brought under control. Jacobins who had been arrested were to be released. The Convention called in the army and the National Guard, arrested 26 Jacobin deputies (accused of inciting the rebellion) and some 4,000 demonstrators (accused of threatening the legitimate government). The Convention also ordered the trial of former members of the CPS, such as Barère, for their role in the Terror. Now, however, they were not guillotined. The Convention adopted the technique of ‘the dry guillotine’ (sending prisoners to remote islands where they could die in oblivion). THE JOURNÉE OF PRAIRIAL, May 1795. The second great uprising started as a riot of market women, and turned into an attack on the Convention. An anonymous pamphlet declared that it was time for “A peoples’ insurrection to obtain bread and recover our rights.” The Convention was again invaded, and the deputy Feraud murdered. The Convention called up loyal National Guards and supporters and accepted a petition for “Bread and the Constitution of 1793”. 10 000 exiled 1700 stripped of rights Volunteer army was sent to the town where it began This marked the end of political influence of the poor “This date should mark the end of the Revolution; its mainspring had been broken.” - Lefebvre

Answer 177

By October 1795, the political right wing, made up of monarchists, was ready to challenge the Convention and try to raise popular support for a restoration. They played upon popular discontent with a law that ensured that 2/3rds of the members of the Convention would sit in the new government, the Directory. The right-wing roused a demonstration of 25,000 people. The Convention had 6,000 troops but no commander; they turned to the 26 year old artillery commander, Napoleon-Bonaparte. Contrary to mythology, N-B DID NOT simply disperse them with “a whiff of grapeshot”. It was a long, murderous battle fought over 5-6 October 1795, and hundreds were killed. N-B won. The Convention was able to keep the 2/3rds law, and so most of its members went on to the Directory. However, the Directory remained frightened of the right-wing, and had to turn to the left-wing of the sans-culottes. Jacobin clubs and journals were allowed to become active again.

Answer 178

October 1795 With the Constitution of the Year III (1795) approved in August and promulgated September the Convention had finished its work and closed on 26 October. The Directory became the new government of France in November 1795.

Answer 179

Created by moderates Five man Directory and a two-house legislature elected by male citizens of property Middle class and professional bourgeoisie were the dominant force Directory held power 1795 to 99 The Directory was weak but dictatorial and faced growing discontent Peace was made with Prussia and Spain but war continued with Austria and Britain Leaders were corrupt and failed to solve problems Rising bread prises stirred hungry sans-culottes to riot and the Directory surpassed them Royalist feeling also threatened Emigres returning and devout Catholics who hated the treatment of the church welcomed them The election of 1719 had constitutional monarchy winning the majority of seats As chaos threatened, politicians turned to Napoleon Bonaparte, a popular military hero who had won against Austrians in Italy Politicians planned to use him to advance their goals- Napoleon would soon outwit them and become ruler Suffrage All men over 21 who paid tax could vote However, this was an indirect system of voting. While all male French citizens could vote in the first stage (primary assembly) they only chose 5 deputies to the second stage (an electoral assembly), who then elected deputies to go into the legislature. Boissy d’Anglas placed tight restrictions on the special electoral assemblies that chose deputies: it was limited to men who owned or rented substantial property, effectively about 300,000 out of 25 million.

Answer 180

The men who came back onto the devastated political stage were all moderates. GIRONDINS: 75 surviving members, with a hatred of everything Jacobin. THE PLAIN: Moderate, middling deputies who had felt threatened by Robespierre. A NEW RIGHT WING: Returned royalists and nobles who detested popular radicalism. The men of 1795 still believed in DEMOCRACY and in CIVIL RIGHTS; in this sense, they were still men of 1789. They removed the Jacobin ideal of FRATERNITY, (by now fraternity was a dirty word signifying a dangerous sympathy for working people) They also added the new idea of DUTIES, things everyone had to do for the good of society.

Answer 181

THE RIGHTS were liberty, equality, security and property THE DUTIES were all related to the good of society: in whatever form might be required, every citizen had to serve the Nation. THE LEGISLATURE was a two-house system; a safer option than a single-house system, consisting of the COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED, whose role was to propose and frame new laws then send them to the upper house for approval. Members had to be 30+ years of age and resident for a decade. THE COUNCIL OF ANCIENTS; 250 deputies whose min age was 40, married or widowed. Extensive rotation: one third of its members were replaced each year. This council simply had the power to return the law unapproved.

Answer 182

Designed to be strong. The Council of Ancients chose 50 reliable men, who in turn chose five men, who formed a tight, effective, compact executive government; EXECUTIVE DIRECTORY. They were given significant powers / a strong mandate to defend the Republic internally and externally. They were not allowed to become powerful: each taking a turn at being president for three months.

Answer 183

“Materially, the sans-culottes gained very little from the Revolution: the right to vote and the controls on food prices were withdrawn before the end of 1795. But they most certainly left their mark on events. They had served as the shock troops of revolution in all the great public events… Although never holding more than a handful of seats in the National Assemblies of the Revolution, it was the first time that small craftsmen and tradesmen had ruled a city the size of Paris for a whole critical year. And despite the loss of their more material games, the tradition of mass popular action and direct democracy initiated by the Paris sans-culottes [has] survived.” George Rude