RUSSIA 1894-1945

Question 1

The tsar was a ___

Answer 1

autocrat- a ruler with absolute power

Question 2

What was wrong with the russian empire?

Answer 2

the Russian Empire was politically, economically and socially backwards. There was little industry and the vast majority of the population were peasant farmers. Many people were
illiterate.

Question 3

What are serfs?

Answer 3

slaves under the control of wealthy landowners

Question 4

What is the tsarist state?

Answer 4

The Tsarist state system had developed over a long period. The Tsar’s authority was supported by several features. These are known as the ‘Pillars of Autocracy’.
This vast, diverse Empire was ruled by a series of Tsars. They ran the country as autocrats. This meant that the Tsar, and only the Tsar, governed Russia:

Tsars believed that they had a divine right to rule Russia, their position and power had been given to them by God.

Question 5

What were the nobility in the russian empire?

Answer 5

The nobility accounted for approximately 10 per cent of the population. This upper class owned all the land and was dependent on the Tsar. They also dominated the army command and civil service:

the civil service helped the Tsar run the Russian Empire
administrators and officials carried out the instructions of the Tsar and his ministers
they were appointed and paid by the Tsar
they owed their position to the Tsar and were very loyal to him
to oppose him would mean losing power and position

Question 6

How was the law designed in the empire?

Answer 6

The Tsarist legal system was designed to support autocracy and Tsarist authority. It was also intended to suppress opposition and increase fear among the population:

A standard punishment for opponents of the Tsar was exile to the remote region of Siberia. Many thousands of people viewed as enemies of the state were sent to Siberia. They were so far away that they had little chance of threatening Tsarist power.

The Empire did not have an elected parliament and there were no elections for positions in the government.

There were no legal or constitutional methods by which Tsarist power could be challenged.

Question 7

How did the okhrana work?

Answer 7

The Tsar’s will was enforced by a large police system that would report suspicious behaviour and destroy subversive groups:

the secret police had a vital role in identifying and spying on enemies
they had the power to arrest potential threats as required.
agents of the Okhrana worked undercover, infiltrating groups that might present a danger to the Tsar
they acted on the Tsar’s behalf, treating citizens how they saw fit
their methods included torture and murder

Question 8

How did religion influence Russian society?

Answer 8

The Tsar was the head of the Orthodox Church. The Church reinforced his authority:

Official Church doctrine stated that the Tsar was appointed by God. Any challenge to the Tsar - the ‘Little Father’ - was said to be an insult to God.

The Church was very influential among the largely peasant population. It made sure this message was conveyed regularly to them. Priests explained to their followers that Russia was God’s land and that he intended for life to be as the peasants found it.

The Church was given financial rewards from the Tsar for this propaganda.

Most of the Russian population was illiterate and had to rely on what they were told by the Church. It was their only source of education and they tended to believe the teachings of the priests.

However, priests were often not respected by peasants, who believed they were increasingly corrupt and hypocritical. The word of the Church became less respected during the rule of Nicholas II.

Question 9

What was wrong with working conditions in the urban areas?

Answer 9

Working conditions were terrible and trade unionism was banned. There was little to protect the pay or safety of workers. Laws protecting workers brought in under Alexander III and Nicholas II did little to improve the situation as the working day remained at 11.5 hours.

Living conditions were horrendous as developers struggled to deal with the demand for accommodation. Many lived in communal houses similar to army quarters, where kitchens, toilets and washrooms were shared. Others were forced to sleep in the factories where they worked, with little in terms of bedding.

There was limited sanitation and running water in the cities and the mortality rate was high.

There was an economic downturn in the early 1900s, leading to a lack of jobs and regular income. This was disastrous for those migrating to the cities looking for work.

Question 10

What was there a lack of at the time in pre civil war Russia?

Answer 10

Education

Question 11

The aristocracy ____________?

Answer 11

formed about 1.5 percent of society but owned 25 percent of the land.They were also loyal to the tsar?

Question 12

What is wrong with the Industry in Russia?

Answer 12

The Empire lacked a strong industry for a number of reasons.

It lacked the capital or money to purchase the machinery required. It relied on taxation of peasants which increased resentment and sales of grain to other countries. It did receive investment from countries such as France.

It lacked the roads and rail network required to exploit many of its natural resources. These were often located in remote regions such as Siberia. The building of the trans-Siberian helped open up many of these areas.

It lacked a skilled workforce. The majority of peasants were illiterate and unskilled.

The heavy taxation of the population meant that there was a lack of a market within the Empire. This reduced the incentive to industrialise.

Unlike other countries such as Britain, the drive for industrialisation was led by the government and not the middle classes. However, many bureaucrats had little understanding of the importance of industrialisation.

Question 13

What was wrong with the Tsar

Answer 13

-obsessed with his past
- Not a strong leader
-avoided making important decisions, gave tasks to officials
-appointed family members to roles
-managed his officials poorly

Question 14

How did the Russo Japanese war influence the revolution of 1905?

Answer 14

In 1904 war broke out between Russia and Japan. They were fighting for control over Korea and Manchuria. The war was a disaster for the Tsarist Empire.

In January 1905 the Russian held port of Port Arthur surrendered. This led to a great deal of resentment about the way the war was being conducted. Further defeats at Mukden and Tsushima embarrassed the Russian population and led to demands for reform. This contributed to the unrest and discontent which was building within the Tsarist Empire.

Question 15

What were some of the Tsar’s unpopular decisions?

Answer 15

Many were unhappy with the political conditions in Russia:

Ethnic minorities were greatly oppressed by the policies of Russification
Jewish people were persecuted by state-sanctioned pogroms
The influence of Zemstvas (provincial governing bodies) was reduced
In 1900 officials criticising the government were purged
Middle class industrialists were unhappy that they had no say in how the country was governed
Increased industrialisation and urbanisation had led to major social and economic problems for workers and peasants

Question 16

Whose ideas started to rise in popularity in Russia?

Answer 16

Karl Marx-From the 1880s, Marxist ideas began to spread through Russia. Based on the theories of the German economist Karl Marx, they proposed that the proletariat - the underclass of society - would rise up in rebellion and seize power from the wealthy ruling class and establish a fairer society.

Question 17

What were the two parties opposing the tsar?

Answer 17

The Socialist Revolutionaries adopted a combination of Marxist and Populist beliefs. They wanted to overthrow the government in favour of giving power to the peasants.

Although they were greatly uncoordinated in their efforts, they carried out approximately 2,000 political assassinations in the years leading up to the 1905 Revolution.

Social Democrats
Social Democrat beliefs were based on Marxism. They did not consider that the peasants would rise in revolution. They focused on agitation amongst the workers in the cities.

The group split in 1903 after an ideological disagreement. The Mensheviks, led by Martov, wanted revolution by the workers to occur naturally. The Bolsheviks led by Lenin, believed revolution should come as soon as possible.

Although not directly involved in the 1905 revolution, these revolutionary groups had been able to help spread strikes and protests throughout the Empire.

Question 18

What was the 1905 revolution?

Answer 18

Minister of the Interior Plehve had established a legal trade union in St Petersburg. Called the Assembly of Russian Factory and Mill Workers, it was led by a Russian Orthodox priest, Father Georgy Gapon.
In late 1904, four union members at the Putilov Iron Works Plant in St Petersburg were dismissed. Gapon called for industrial action.

On 22 January 1905, Father Gapon led a march to deliver a petition to the Tsar. Thousands of workers took part in this peaceful protest. The workers were not trying to overthrow the Tsar. They believed that the Tsar did not know of their plight. Instead they blamed the Tsarist ministers and officials.

This demonstration of factory workers was brutally put down by Russian soldiers. Up to 200 people were killed by rifle fire and Cossack charges. This event became known as Bloody Sunday and is seen as one of the key causes of the 1905 Revolution.

The aftermath brought about a short-lived revolution in which the Tsar lost control of large areas of Russia. The revolution failed but it served as a serious warning of what might happen in the future.

Question 19

How was the 1905 revolution suppressed?

Answer 19

Fighting broke out between the army and strikers in Moscow. By the middle of the month, the army had suppressed the strike and killed over 1,000.

The Union of Russian People was established to fight against the revolutionary groups. It had the power to arrest, sentence and execute those who committed crimes against the state.

Question 20

What’s the october manifesto?

Answer 20

Sergei Witte was an influential policy maker. He persuaded the Tsar to pass his October Manifesto. Issued in 1905, it promised significant political reform, although most of these promises were open to interpretation:

A Duma (elected national parliament) was to be set up. No law was to be passed unless approved by the Duma.
Censorship would be loosened and more freedom of speech encouraged.
The people would have more rights to gather together for discussions and meetings

Question 21

What did peter stolypin do?

Answer 21

Redemption Payments (loans from the state) were abolished. Loans for peasants to buy land became available with the introduction of Peasants’ Land Banks.

Mirs (communities of peasant farmers) could no longer stop individuals from leaving to buy private land. Mirs that did not cooperate were to be dissolved. Peasants were also given financial incentives to move to remote areas of Siberia in an attempt to open up the countryside.
Agricultural output increased by a third, while peasant land ownership increased by 30 per cent. The number of Kulaks increased dramatically and they were increasingly supportive of the Tsar.

Question 22

What is Peter Stolypin’s carrot and stick approach?

Answer 22

The stick- He oppressed strikers and protestors
The carrot - he win over the peasants by giving them more land

Question 23

Why did the Tsar want to sack Stolypin?

Answer 23

He changed russia too much and their ideas clashed.

Question 24

When did the socDems split?

Answer 24

The Social Democrats split in 1903 after an ideological disagreement - the Mencheviks wanted revolution to occur naturally, whereas the Bolsheviks argued it should be pursued immediately.

Question 25

What did the Tsarina do during the War?

Answer 25

As the war continued, the quality and effectiveness of the Russian Empire’s government was called into question.

The departure of Nicholas II to the front left his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, in control. Alexandra was not hugely popular in Russia. She was reserved and awkward in public. More importantly, she was a German princess and some were suspicious as to where her loyalties lay.

Alexandra gained increasing influence over the appointment of ministers to the government. She was determined that no member of the imperial government should ever be in a sufficiently strong position to challenge the authority of her beloved husband. She appointed less threatening, sometimes incompetent, ministers to replace those who knew how to govern.

During a period of 16 months she employed:

Four different Prime Minsters
Five different Ministers of the Interior
Three different Minsters of War

Question 26

How did the war influence the revolution?

Answer 26

In 1914 Russia attempted to support both Britain and France by launching armies into battle within ten days. Two large Russian armies invaded Eastern Germany and won a small victory.

However, a short time later, they were completely routed by smaller German forces at the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.

In 1915 German and Austrian attacks forced the Imperial Armies to retreat and resulted in the loss of land. Much of this land was farmland which produced food. It also led to large numbers of refugees fleeing eastwards. These refugees needed to be fed and looked after. This intensified the problems facing the Tsarist State.

By 1916 the Russian army had suffered around 5.3 million casualties. The Russian army which had been loyal to the Tsar had been largely destroyed. The new recruits were conscripted peasants who resented being taken away from their land. During their training they were kept in barracks in cities such as Petrograd. This allowed them to come into contact with the increasingly unhappy civilian population. This was dangerous as not only were the recruits unhappy, they also had access to weapons.

Question 27

What were the economic problems surrounding Russia?

Answer 27

From the start of the war, Russia’s economic problems grew steadily worse. By the beginning of 1917, the country was facing virtual economic collapse.

Industry
Russian industry moved into crisis during the war. Vital raw materials from overseas could no longer reach Russia. This resulted in shortages of raw materials and finished goods. The army faced major shortages of supplies and weapons.

Transport
Russia had an underdeveloped railway system. This was taken over by the government to be used primarily for the war effort. It had to cope with the pressures of moving large quantities of troops and supplies to the battlefronts. This made it more difficult to keep the cities supplied with food.

Agriculture
Agricultural methods remained backward and still relied on many peasants being able to work the land. Millions of peasant farmers were conscripted into the army. This led to a major shortage of manpower on the farms and a corresponding fall in production.

There were serious shortages of food in the city shops. The price of even the most basic foods was rising steeply.

By 1916, inflation had reached 200 per cent, the value of the rouble had fallen substantially and the price of goods was soaring. This made life increasingly difficult, particularly for poorer people.

Question 28

What was wrong with Rasputin?

Answer 28

The imperial family was brought into disrepute as the Tsarina fell under the influence of Grigori Rasputin.

Rasputin was a monk from Siberia. He was rumoured to be a Khlyst, member of an extreme underground sect that had split from the Orthodox Church. He was infamous for his drunkenness and for womanising.

However he also gained a reputation as a healer, able to perform amazing feats and miracles.

Rasputin came to the attention of the royal family. In April 1907, Alexandra called on him to heal her only son, the Tsarevich Alexis. He was suffering from painful bleeding as a result of an injury. It was not publicly known but Alexis suffered from the blood disease haemophilia.

After Alexis recovered, Tsarina Alexandra became convinced that Rasputin could control the young boy’s illness.

While there is still debate over the nature of his powers over the health of Alexis, it is clear that his influence over the Tsarina was considerable. He advised her on appointments to the government, interfered in important decisions. He could do no wrong in the eyes of the Tsarina. Excuses were always made for his excessive and antisocial behaviour.

To the Russian people, Rasputin symbolised everything that was wrong with imperial government. The court and the royal family became objects of ridicule

Question 29

What were the reforms associated with The Provisional Govt

Answer 29

they abolished the Okhrana
they removed Tsarist Governors
they also allowed freedom of speech
they abolished the death penalty
they released political prisoners
they gave an amnesty to opponents of the Tsar
Although many of these changes were popular, they also made it easier for enemies of the provisional government to criticise them. There was little the government could do to prevent it.

Question 30

What is dual power?

Answer 30

The Provisional Government could not make decisions on their own. They had to share power with the Soviet. Indeed, the assembly of workers and soldiers deputies had more influence over many areas of everyday life. They controlled the railway, postal and telegraph services. This meant the Provisional Government had to listen to the Soviet.

A key example of this power was Order No. 1. It stated:

committees were to be elected to replace officers and control weapons and equipment
officers were not to be saluted
all soldiers and sailors were to obey the Soviet
This had an impact on the discipline of the army. Soldiers refused to obey orders and large numbers simply went home. This was particularly true of those from the countryside who wanted to take advantage of the disorder to seize land. The result was that there were very few troops who could be relied on to follow orders.

The main reasons for dissatisfaction with the Provisional Government concerned its failure to tackle three main issues:

continuation of the War
demands for land
economic and social problems facing the population

Question 31

What were other reasons for the collapse of the Provisional Government?

Answer 31

Continuation of the War
The Provisional Government felt it had to continue the war. It relied on loans and investment from Britain and France. It was afraid this would be withdrawn if Russia pulled out of the war.

The Government was afraid of the demands that the Germans might make if Russia asked for peace.

Some such as Alexander Kerensky (Prime Minister July to October 1917) believed that a victorious war would unite the people behind the Government.

The decision to continue the war was unpopular. In April 1917 the Government sent a note to the allies telling them they would continue in the war. The note suggested that Russia should be rewarded with land from Turkey in the event of a victory. This led to demonstrations and disorder. Many were unhappy because it appeared that the Provisional Government was no different to the Tsar’s Government. The Foreign Minister who sent the note was forced to resign and order was restored by the Soviet.

In June 1917 a new Russian offensive failed with heavy casualties. Desertion quickly increased and the lack of discipline resulted in its disintegration.

Demands for land
The Government wanted to leave discussion of this issue until after elections. This caused the peasants to become unhappy with the authorities. It also ignored reality. After February 1917 the peasant had simply taken the land. The land seizures also encouraged many peasants to desert from the army. They were afraid they would miss out.

Economic and social problems facing the population
There were continued shortages of food in the cities throughout 1917. Food riots were common as the price of food rose much faster than wages.

The failure to tackle the major problems meant that the Provisional Government lost support. The Kornilov revolt meant it was relying on its enemies, the Red Guards, to defend it. By the autumn of 1917 few people were prepared to fight to defend Kerensky and his minsters.

Question 32

Who were the bolsheviks?

Answer 32

The Bolsheviks were a revolutionary party, committed to the ideas of Karl Marx. They believed that the working classes would, at some point, liberate themselves from the economic and political control of the ruling classes. Once they had achieved this, a genuine socialist society based on equality, could be established.

However, the Bolsheviks differed from the Mensheviks in that they believed that this revolution should move more quickly as the workers were not ready to rule themselves. Hence, the Bolsheviks would form a Dictatorship of the Proletariat to hold power until Russia was modernised. The Poletariat were the original supporters of the Bolsheviks and tended to be industrial workers.

At the time of the February Revolution, which overthrew the Tsar, the Bolsheviks were still relatively weak. Most of their leaders, including Lenin, were in exile in Switzerland. The chances of the Bolsheviks ever attaining power in Russia seemed remote.

But in late 1917, Bolshevik leader Lenin decided that the conditions in Russia were ripe for revolution.

Question 33

What was the Kornilov affair?

Answer 33

After the failed June Offensive resulted in 200,000 Russian casualties, General Kornilov tried to seize power himself. He took an army to Petrograd, but workers went on strike and troops deserted. His attempts to seize power failed.

Question 34

What was declared in the April Thesis?

Answer 34

Lenin declared “All power to the Soviets”. This showed that the Bolsheviks did not believe in the existence of the Provisional Government or an elected national assembly.

He also promised “Peace, Land and Bread” to the masses

Peace -
Lenin could see that the Russian people wanted an end to the war
The Bolsheviks declared that they would make peace with the Germans.
Land -
Bolsheviks support was concentrated in the cities
they had very little support among the peasants who made up the vast majority of the population
by offering them land, Lenin ensured that the peasants stayed neutral when the Bolsheviks made their bid for power
Bread -
Lenin claimed that the Bolsheviks could solve the food shortages that existed in the towns and cities

Question 35

What was Leon Trotsky’s role in the revolution?

Answer 35

Lenin was actively supported by Leon Trotsky. In September, Trotsky became Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet and was head of the Military Revolutionary Committee. The MRC was established to protect Petrograd and allowed socialists to infiltrate the army.

Trotsky had superb organisational and improvisational skills. His position in the Soviet allowed him to create the Red Guard. This was a Bolshevik militia, formed from armed factory workers, soldiers and sailors.

Lenin returned to Petrograd in early October, determined to seize power quickly. The Provisional Government had announced that elections would take place in November and he was certain that the Bolsheviks would perform poorly.

Trotsky took charge of planning the Bolshevik coup that was intended for the end of October.

Question 36

How was the October revolution executed?

Answer 36

Led by Trotsky, the Military Revolutionary Committee was able to secure the support of the Petrograd Garrison and the Kronstadt sailors.

On 24th October, Prime Minister Kerensky tried to limit Bolshevik influence. He ordered the arrest of many of their leaders. In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee decided to take action.

The Red Guards and Kronstadt sailors gained control of key infrastructure in the city. On the night of the 25th, they moved against the Provisional Government.

The Winter Palace was surrounded by the Petrograd garrison, supported by the Kronstadt sailors who had arrived on board the Aurora battleship.

The Provisional Government members were arrested on the 26th October after the Winter Palace was stormed by Red Guards.

Question 37

How did Leon Trotsky help win the civil war?

Answer 37

Trotsky became Commissar for War in the Bolshevik government in March 1918. A brilliant organiser and improviser, Trotsky created the Red Army out of the Red Guards and from the remnants of the old Tsarist army.

Appointing ex-Tsarist officers was questioned, but Trotsky insisted they would bring expertise essential to winning the Civil War.
Political commissars were drafted into army units to spread socialist ideas and maintain loyalty to the Bolsheviks.
Conscription was established, hundreds of thousands of peasants were drafted into the Red Army.
Trotsky imposed tough discipline and control over the Red Army. Officers found guilty of cowardice or treachery were executed. However, men who showed initiative and courage were promoted rapidly.
Trotsky travelled in an armoured train to the front lines to encourage troops. At times of crisis, he readily assumed personal command of areas under threat. He successfully inspired and encouraged troops to greater efforts, and to eventual victory.

Question 38

What other measured ensured Bolshevik success?

Answer 38

Under Lenin’s leadership, the Bolsheviks displayed total ruthlessness in making sure that they did not face rebellion and revolt in the areas they controlled, assuming the role as the true nationalists and representative of Russian people.

Once the Civil War began, the Bolsheviks banned all political parties and arrested their leaders. They also closed down newspapers that opposed them.
“War communism” was introduced to help supply the war effort. In May 1918 a Food Dictatorship was established where the Bolsheviks requisitioned grain from the peasants.
The Cheka, the Bolshevik Secret Police, hunted down and arrested anyone who was suspected of hostility towards the Bolsheviks. By the end of the Civil War, they had executed over 100,000 political opponents. This was known as the Red Terror.
Russia’s industry was nationalised, giving the Bolsheviks total control of goods production.
Propaganda
Propaganda poster of Lenin, arm outstretched pointing into the distance. There is a red flag beneath him and group of soldiers with their rifles drawn and bayonets attached.

Propaganda
The Bolsheviks organised a highly effective propaganda campaign dispersed through posters, leaflets, cinema and speeches.

Propanganda told the people that living conditions would improve and wealth would be distributed more fairly. In contrast they warned that the White Armies and their leaders would destroy all the achievements of the Revolution, break up the Soviets and bring back the old system.

The Bolsheviks portrayed themselves as a patriotic party who would defend Russia from imperialists. This was particularly effective since the Whites had support from Britain, France and the USA.

The Bolsheviks spread the fear that Russia would be taken over by foreign countries and absorbed into their empires.

Question 39

Why were the whites so unsuccessful?

Answer 39

The Whites had a number of weaknesses that led to their defeat.

Divided leadership- lacking a single figurehead like Lenin, different generals had conflicting aims
Whites became hated and feared for the brutality they showed towards local areas, stealing crops and livestock and torturing objecting civilians
Low moral- their lack of a clear aim or plan was less enticing than the Bolshevik cause- the establishment and survival of the revolution and a communist Russia.
Many feared that foreign intervention would bring an end to Russian independence in the event of White victory.
Given the choice between the Bolsheviks and the Whites, it was hardly surprising that Bolshevik support increased dramatically.

Question 40

How did geography fail the whites?

Answer 40

At the start of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks controlled the key central area of Russia between Petrograd and Moscow. This gave them a number of advantages.

Most of Russia’s railways were in this area. This made communication between the various battlefronts much easier. Trotsky was able to move troops and supplies quickly to positions under attack. As Commissar for War, he was able to visit the battlefronts in an armoured train, and to take personal command.
The large population of the major cities was a key resource for the Bolsheviks. The cities provided fresh recruitment for the Red Army.
Much of Russia’s industry and raw materials was located in this area. This made it possible for the Bolsheviks to keep their troops supplied and equipped with weapons, ammunition and supplies.
The sheer size of Russia worked against the White Armies. They had to move their forces and supplies over huge distances. This made it difficult to maintain effective control.

Question 41

What was the Kronstadt rising?

Answer 41

Sailors on the Kronstadt naval base were unhappy with some of the Bolsheviks new policies and sparked a mutiny and asked for 15 demands for the Bolsheviks. In response, Trotsky sent 60 000 troops to put down the uprising killing thousands of soldiers. Lenin realised he couldn’t keep the emergency policies of War Communism. It was probably so because the sailors were the biggest supporters of lenin.

Question 42

What was the NEP?

Answer 42

Forced requisitioning of farm produce was replaced by a smaller ‘tax in kind’ (i.e. tax paid in produce). This allowed peasants to sell their surplus on the free market.
Small-scale businesses were denationalised. This allowed a large sector of the market to return to normal.
‘The commanding heights of industry’ (coal, steel, transport etc.) remained in government hands.
A purge of Party membership, a reduction in persecution of ‘class enemies’

and the creation of law codes to allow a return to normal life
Many people in the Communist Party hated these measures. They thought they were compromises. Lenin justified them as ‘one step backward in order to take two steps forward’.

During the NEP, communist organisation was greatly strengthened. This made the later move to real dictatorship and centralised control possible.

The Communist Party remained in control and the economy began to recover, but the NEP was never regarded as a permanent feature.

Question 43

Why did the NEP cause divisions?

Answer 43

Many believed needed to attack peasants to create extra grain
Complained over re-emergence of middle class NEPmen and Kulaks
Disliked concession to capitalism
Lenin had to take steps to deter opposition to NEP after Bolsheviks split
Banned factionalism in party – creation of groups within party with complaints over rule
Declared all political parties other than Bolsheviks were outlawed as only Bolsheviks capable of training and organising a proletarian working class

Question 44

How well did the NEP work?

Answer 44

The NEP seemed a success. It returned the economy to pre-1914 levels and gave the Communist Party the breathing space it needed to survive:

Production figures show the NEP was success
By Lenin’s death in 1924 marked recovery on all major industry
Grain – 1921 37.6 million tonnes in 1924 51.4 million tonnes
Factory output – 1921 2004 million roubles in 1924 4660 million roubles
Average monthly wage – 1921 10.2 roubles in 1924 20.8 roubles
Showed mixture of capitalist agriculture and state controlled industry could create economic growth

although,

Growth slackened after 1926. Once spare capacity in the economy had been taken up, the NEP did not maximise industrial development. There could be no communist future without industrialisation.
The Communist Party could not rely on free enterprise for very long. They thought it was morally wrong. They thought the economic disease of capitalism would infect the proletariat.
The Soviet Government was worried about external security. The Treaty of Locarno 1925 weakened the friendship that had existed between Russia and Germany since Brest–Litovsk. The Soviet Union was worried that capitalist powers would re-invade Russia, especially after Britain broke off relations in May 1927, and communism suffered reverses in China in 1927. There were inescapable connections between defence and industrialisation.
There were problems within the economy, especially the ‘scissors crisis’. From 1923 until 1926 particularly, agricultural output increased faster than industrial output. A ‘goods famine’ meant the peasantry made large amounts of money but could not spend it. It was difficult to move this money into the development of heavy industry, as the government wished.
High unemployment in urban areas and industry failed to expand as quickly as independently owned agriculture.

Question 45

What happened at Lenin’s funeral?

Answer 45

After Lenin’s death, Stalin organised his funeral.
He also suppressed Lenin’s final testament.
This meant that fewer people knew about Lenin’s final criticisms.
At the funeral, Stalin appeared close to Lenin and carried his coffin (pall-bearer). He positioned himself as Lenin’s loyal servant. Petrograd was named Leningrad that year.
Trotsky was tricked by Stalin and supposedly told the wrong date of the funeral. Officially, he did not attend because he was ‘ill’.

Question 46

What did Stalin do in 1929?

Answer 46

After Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin begins ruthlessly promoting himself as his political heir.

Many in the party expect Red Army leader Leon Trotsky to be Lenin’s natural successor, but his ideas are too idealistic for the majority of the Communist Party. Stalin, however, develops his own nationalistic brand of Marxism – “Socialism in One Country” – concentrating on strengthening the Soviet Union rather than world revolution. When Trotsky criticises his plans, Stalin has him exiled. Stalin’s ideas are popular with the party and by the late 1920s he becomes dictator of the Soviet Union.

Question 47

What was Stalin’s great Terror?

Answer 47

Stalin promotes an image of himself as a great benevolent leader and hero of the Soviet Union.

Yet he is increasingly paranoid and purges the Communist party and Army of anyone who might oppose him. Ninety three of the 139 Central Committee members are killed and 81 of the 103 generals and admirals are executed. The secret police strictly enforce Stalinism and people are encouraged to inform on one another. Three million people are accused of opposing Communism and sent to the gulag, a system of labour camps in Siberia. Around 750,000 people are summarily killed.

Question 48

Why did Stalin commit the purges?

Answer 48

The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by Leon Trotsky and Nikolai Bukharin, respectively. Following the Civil War and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the “temporary” wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin’s opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.

Question 49

What were the show trials?

Answer 49

The Moscow trials were a series of show trials held by the Soviet Union between 1936 and 1938 at the instigation of Joseph Stalin. They were nominally directed against “Trotskyists” and members of the “Right Opposition” of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The “Case of the Trotskyite–Zinovievite Terrorist Center” (or Zinoviev–Kamenev Trial, also known as the ‘Trial of the Sixteen’, August 1936);
The “Case of the Anti-Soviet Trotskyist Center” (or Pyatakov–Radek Trial, also known as the ‘Trial of the Seventeen’, January 1937); and
The “Case of the Anti-Soviet ‘Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites’” (or the Bukharin–Rykov Trial, also known as the ‘Trial of the Twenty-One’, March 1938).
The defendants were Old Bolshevik Party leaders and top officials of the Soviet secret police. Most were charged under Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code with conspiring with imperialist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union, and restore capitalism. Several prominent figures (such as Andrei Bubnov, Alexander Beloborodov, Nikolai Yezhov) were sentenced to death during the Stalin era outside these trials.

The Moscow trials led to the execution of many of the defendants. The trials are generally seen as part of Stalin’s Great Purge, a campaign to rid the party of current or prior opposition, including Trotskyists and leading Bolshevik cadre members from the time of the Russian Revolution or earlier, who might even potentially become a figurehead for the growing discontent in the Soviet populace resulting from Stalin’s mismanagement of the economy. Stalin’s rapid industrialization during the period of the First five-year plan and the brutality of the forced agricultural collectivization had led to an acute economic and political crisis in 1928–1933, which led to the worsened conditions of Soviet workers and peasants. Stalin was acutely conscious of this fact and took steps to prevent it taking the form of an opposition inside the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to his increasingly totalitarian rule.

Question 50

Who was Zinoviev?

Answer 50

was a Russian revolutionary and Soviet politician. An Old Bolshevik, Zinoviev was a prominent figure in the leadership of the early Soviet Union and served as chairman of the Communist International (Comintern) from 1919 to 1926. After the assassination of Sergei Kirov, a close ally of Stalin, in 1934, Zinoviev was accused of complicity in his killing, convicted, and sentenced to ten years in prison. While imprisoned in 1936, Zinoviev was further accused of treason during the Stalinist Great Purge, and he was executed after a show trial in August 1936.

Question 51

Who was Lev Kamenev?

Answer 51

Deputy Chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars of the Soviet Union. Stalin subsequently turned against his former allies and ousted Kamenev from the Soviet leadership. Kamenev and Zinoviev would later align with Trotsky and form the United Opposition from 1926–1927. Along with Zinoviev, he was expelled from the party three times. Kamenev was arrested in 1935 following the assassination of Sergei Kirov and made a chief defendant in 1936 Trial of the Sixteen, which marked the start of the Great Purge. He was found guilty during the show trial and executed by a firing squad on August 25.

Question 52

Who was Nikolai Bukharin?

Answer 52

General Secretary of the Executive Committee of the Communist International. From 1926 to 1929, Bukharin enjoyed power as General Secretary of the Comintern’s executive committee. However, following Stalin’s decision to proceed with agricultural collectivisation in the Great Break, Bukharin became the leader of the Right Opposition and was expelled from Pravda and the party leadership in 1929.

After a period in lower party positions, in 1934 Bukharin was re-elected to the Central Committee. He became a principal architect of the 1936 Soviet constitution. In February 1937, during the Stalinist Great Purge, Bukharin was accused of treason and executed after a show trial in 1938.