Ruling the Second Reich 1871-79

Question 1

Which were the most powerful states in the German Confederation?

Answer 1

Prussia and Austria were the most powerful states in the German Confederation

The confederation was dominated by the Austrians. No new, unified German state could come into being without both Austria and Prussia agreeing (or fighting)

Question 2

How did Austria humiliate Prussia in May 1849?

Answer 2

In May 1849, the Prussian King brought together 20 German states in the Erfurt Union; this left out Austria but Austrian pressure saw it abandoned and the Austria regained political leadership of the German Confederation after humiliating Prussia

Question 3

What advantage did Prussia have over Austria leading up to 1871?

Answer 3

Austria was more powerful but Prussia was the more expansive of the two

Prussia increasingly challenged this position through expansion, although Austria already had a huge empire including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania

Question 4

What was the difference between Grossdeutsch and Kleindeutsch?

Answer 4

Some German states supported a ‘greater Germany’ (Grossdeutsch) led by Austria

Others wanted to support a ‘little Germany’ (Kleindeutsch) led by Prussia. Some feared Prussia would be controlled by the ultra-conservative Prussian monarchy

Question 5

What was the congress of Vienna intended to do?

Answer 5

Towards the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1814-5, the Congress of Vienna was held to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe

The 360 states that had made up the Holy Roman Empire (in the region where Germany is now) were reduced to just 39 sovereign states which became known as the German Confederation in 1815

Question 6

How did Prussia compete with Austria in 1834?

Answer 6

The two most powerful states in the German Confederation, Prussia and Austria, competed for leadership of the group

In 1834, Prussia gained the upper hand by introducing a free-trade area (or Zollverein) which Austria did not join

Question 7

Who in Prussia worked to exclude Austria following the formation of the Zollverein?

Answer 7

Prussia, under the leadership of Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck from 1862, worked to exclude Austria from German affairs and aimed to unite all other German states under Prussian leadership

Bismarck famously said that unification would not be brought about “by speeches and the resolutions of majorities but by blood and iron”.

Question 8

When were the unification wars and what resulted from them?

Answer 8

There were unification wars in 1864, 1866, and 1870-1, resulting in Germany being unified in 1871 with King Wilhelm I of Prussia being made Kaiser of Germany in January 1871

Question 9

What problems faced the newly unified Germany?

Answer 9

• Up until 1871, the 39 states that made up the German Confederation had their own sovereignty and so they weren’t used to being controlled by another power
• The German Confederation was a rather loose collection of states and the only real cooperation between them was trade and a common defense policy

Question 10

What lines existed between the newly unified states of Germany?

Answer 10

• Each state valued its independence and often had strong regional identities. Some states even had their own king (e.g. Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg)
• The different states were also divided along religious lines with the Catholic area of Bavaria having a very different outlook and different values from the Protestant Prussia
• Whilst a shared language was a useful unifier, Prussia (any Austria, before 1871) had many non-German speakers and people who didn’t consider themselves ethnically German

Question 11

What were Schleswig and Holstein, and how were the Danes involved?

Answer 11

Schleswig and Holstein were two duchies ruled by the Danish crown. Holstein was German-speaking and a member of the German Confederation. Schleswig had both German and Danish speakers but was not in the Confederation

The Danes wanted Schleswig; the Germans wanted them both. War ensued in 1848 and the outcome was the Danish King would rule Schleswig-Holstein but not incorporate them into Denmark

Question 12

Why did war occur between the Danes and the German Confederation in 1864?

Answer 12

The new Danish King, Christian IX, incorporated Schleswig into Denmark in 1863 while the Germans demanded the title of Duke of Schleswig-Holstein be given to Frederick, Duke of Augustenburg (because he would bring both areas into the German Confederation)

When the terms decreed in 1848 were violated by the incorporation, Prussia and Austria formed an alliance in 1864 and attacked Denmark. As a result of their victory within months, Schleswig-Holstein was handed over to Prussia and Austria

Question 13

Why did joint rule of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria and Prussia after 1864 struggle?

Answer 13

Joint rule of the region was difficult and Austria realised it had gained nothing by supporting Bismarck and Prussia against Denmark

It was decided that Austria would administer Holstein and Prussia would administer Schleswig. It was this issue which led to war between the two states in 1866

Question 14

What occurred in the war between Austria and Prussia following Austria’s dismay at the administration of Schleswig-Holstein?

Answer 14

As a result of disagreements about the Schleswig-Holstein issue, Prussia and Austria went to war in 1866, the 7 Weeks War, June-July 1866

After 7 weeks, Prussia was victorious (mainly due to superior weaponry) following the decisive battle at Koniggratz. Bismarck claimed this victory was part of his master plan for unifying Germany, but many historians dispute this, claiming he was merely pragmatic

Question 15

What resulted from the Treaty of Prague following the Schleswig-Holstein affair and 7 Weeks War?

Answer 15

The Treaty of Prague led to the creation of a German state, the North German Confederation, ruled by Prussia.

Only four states: Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt, remained independent. 2/3 of all Germans (except Austrian-Germans) were now part of the North German Confederation

Question 16

Before the mess with Spain, how did tensions between France and Prussia help lead to the Franco-Prussia War 1870-1?

Answer 16

France, under Napoleon III (who was the nephew of THE Napoleon, apparently) had thought they might gain from a prolonged war between Prussia and Austria. As it happened, however, they were alarmed at the speed of the Prussian victory and strengthening of their power

Bismarck later claimed a unified Germany could only have happened after defeating France

Question 17

How did stupidity in Spain lead to the Franco-Prussian War 1870-1?

Answer 17

In 1870, the Spanish offered their throne to the Prussian Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern but the French, fearful of being surrounded by Prussia influence, demanded the offer be turned down

The Prussian King, Wilhelm I agreed but the French demanded that no Prussian could ever take the Spanish throne. This was refused and the French declared war

Question 18

Why was the Franco-Prussian War 1870-1 kind of pathetic?

Answer 18

The war was short and decisive since no country came to France’s aid

The French were defeated after the Battle of Sedan in September 1870 but some revolutionaries carried on fighting in Paris until January 1871

Question 19

What resulted from the Franco-Prussian War 1870-1 for Germany?

Answer 19

Victory in the Franco-Prussian War led directly to the final unification and The German Empire was declared on 18th January, 1871, at the Palace of Versailles.

Wilhelm I was declared Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany and the four states who hadn’t joined the North German Confederation did join the new Germany

Bismarck also took Alsace-Lorraine from France, with £200,000, as compensation for the war

Question 20

What were the political components of the Second Reich 1871-1918?

Answer 20

• Kaiser (Emperor)
• Government: Chancellor and other ministers
• Reichstag
• Bundesrat
• The Electorate, of course

Question 21

How did the Kaiser rule over the Second Reich?

Answer 21

• Hereditary monarch (king of Prussia)
• Appointed/dismissed government
• Could dissolve Reichstag
• Controlled foreign policy and armed forces
• Could interpret the constitution

He summoned/dismissed the Reichstag, summoned the Bundesrat, and appointed the Government

Question 22

How did the Reichstag rule over Second Reich?

Answer 22

• Members (deputies) elected by male suffrage
• Could agree/reject laws proposed by Kaiser or government
• Main power was control over the budget
• Could not remove Kaiser or government
• Elected every 5 years (unless dissolved) and members not paid

Elected by electorate, summoned/dismissed by the Kaiser

Question 23

How did the Government rule over the Second Reich?

Answer 23

• Proposed new laws to Reichstag
• Not dependant on Reichstag to stay in power and could ignore them
• Chaired sessions of the Bundesrat

Appointed/dismissed by the Kaiser

Question 24

How did the Bundesrat rule over the Second Reich?

Answer 24

• Had 58 members nominated by state (Länder) assemblies: 17 were from Prussia, 6 from Bavaria, and smaller states had 1 each
• Could veto legislation passed by the Reichstag with just 14 votes (of the 58)
• Had extensive powers but basically rubber-stamped the Chancellor’s policies

Summoned by the Kaiser

Question 25

How did the Electorate function in the Second Reich?

Answer 25

• Men over 25 could vote in Reichstag election every 5 years
• Voted for local state assemblies
• Written constitution but no statement of individual rights

Question 26

Who were the National Liberals?

Answer 26

• Supported creation of a German Empire
• Mainly based in north of country
• Backed Bismarck until 1878
• Represented the educated and wealthy middle class of Germany and did well in Saxony, Hanover, Baden and the industrial areas of the Rhineland

Question 27

Who were the Centre (Z) party?

Answer 27

• Represented Catholic Interests
• Strongest support in the south e.g. Bavaria and Baden but also Rhineland, Silesia, and the Polish population in the eastern side of Prussia
• Began to gain more votes from the national groups, particularly Poles and French, over the course of the 1870s

Question 28

Who were the German Conservative Party (DKP)?

Answer 28

• Represented the interests of German landowners (Junkers) in Prussia
• Disliked unification and only backed Bismarck after 1878

Question 29

Who were the SAPD?

Answer 29

• Formed in 1875 through the merging of two workers’ parties, due to rapid urbanisation, the economic depression of the 1870s, and the appeal of socialism
• Attracted about 7% of the vote during the 1870s

Question 30

Who were the National Groups?

Answer 30

• Represented the many Poles, Danes, and French that lived in Germany
• These groups faced discrimination and were treated with suspicion because of their questionable loyalties to Germany and their different ethnic backgrounds
• Won 10% of the vote in 1874 by, over time, these groups became assimilated within Germany as new generations attended German schools and were conscripted into the army

Question 31

What portion of Germans were Catholic, and how did many Germans feel about the new state?

Answer 31

1/3 of the new Germany was Catholic and they felt discriminated in a country dominated by the Protestant Prussians

Moreover, Junkers, Southern Germans, peasants, and non-Prussians (e.g. those in Hanover) viewed the new nation with distrust. Bismarck had to create a new constitution which secured Prussian power but which also overcame the divisions in the country

Question 32

What happened to the monarchs of the previous states upon unification?

Answer 32

• Each of the 22 royal rulers in the newly unified Germany were given substantial powers under the Prussian king, who became Kaiser

According to the constitution, each of the German sovereigns were equal but since the Kaiser controlled the civil service and the military, this wasn’t true

Question 33

What could the Kaiser do that put him ahead of other German monarchs?

Answer 33

The Kaiser was able to proclaim imperial laws which superseded state laws

Despite this, the constitution integrated the royal families of the former German Confederation under the rule of the Kaiser

Question 34

How was the German currency and other areas unified?

Answer 34

A single German currency was created (the mark) as well as standardised measurements and weights

A national legal system was introduced, a national civil service (for all states to use), and the German railway system was linked up between states. A single German flag was created in 1892

Question 35

How was the German army unified in the Second Reich?

Answer 35

The German army was made up of four separate armies: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg

Each army owed its allegiance to the king

Question 36

How was the German army unified in the Second Reich?

Answer 36

The German army was made up of four separate armies: Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg

Each army owed its allegiance to the king of that state except in time of war when the Kaiser was put in charge of the army (an Prussian command would take over)

Question 37

How did the Prussians maintain control of the German army?

Answer 37

Whilst the other states had an important role in the military, the Prussian military elite, led by the Kaiser and the Junkers, controlled the army

Question 38

What were Bismarck’s views on democracy?

Answer 38

Bismarck was sceptical of democracy but believed that allowing Germans a democratic vote would minimise the impact of more liberal influences and encourage continued support for the monarchy

Bismarck worried that denying any form of democracy would simply encourage political opposition (as had been seen in Russia)

Question 39

How did Bismarck limit the power of the Reichstag?

Answer 39

• Reichstag members would receive no payment, so the less privileged found it harder to run
• Allowed the Reichstag to vote on all legislation in order for it to pass, but couldn’t initiate legislation
• Allowed the Bundesrat to veto all legislation from the Reichstag and neither the chancellor, military chief, nor the Kaiser were accountable to the Reichstag
• Decided that if the Reichstag did reject any legislation from the chancellor or the Bundesrat, the Kaiser could dissolve the Reichstag and call for new elections

Question 40

How could the Reichstag maintain power despite Bismarck’s efforts?

Answer 40

Bismarck’s new Reich needed a vast number of new laws so the Reichstag was frequently voting on legislation, making it difficult to dissolve the Reichstag every time they disagreed, forcing concessions

The Reichstag’s main power was control of the budget and, again, they could make life difficult for Bismarck if he was too confrontational

Question 41

What privileges did deputies in the Reichstag enjoy?

Answer 41

The Reichstag was an open forum of debate whose members enjoyed parliamentary immunity (meaning they could say anything and not fear arrest)

Debates were widely reported in the press. The chancellor and ministers could be questioned and embarrassed

Question 42

What did universal suffrage mean for the Reichstag, and what was Bismarck’s reaction?

Answer 42

Universal male suffrage developed the growth of mass political parties with popular appeal - whilst these parties were in no position to form a government, Bismarck couldn’t ignore them

He also needed to work with the Reichstag to a certain extent in order to gain more widespread appeal for his policies. Bismarck considered changing the constitution in the 1880’s because of the growing power of the Reichstag, a sign it has some influence

Question 43

How did the German army promote nationalism, and how was it independent of the Reichstag?

Answer 43

• Conscription meant that all German men served in the army for 2-3 years, instilling patriotism
• In war, army came under control of Kaiser, meaning Prussian generals had huge influence as they were only accountable to the Kaiser
• Army budget was not renewed annually, meaning it was virtually independent of the Reichstag and budgetary controls

Question 44

How did Bismarck meddle with the army budget up to 1874?

Answer 44

• 1867, Bismarck and NLs agreed that the military budget should remain fixed, outside of Reichstag control until 1872
• Franco-Prussian War extended this to 1874

Question 45

What did Bismarck do with the army budget in 1874 that the NLs then opposed?

Answer 45

1874, Bismarck presented a law that said an army over 400,000 men would automatically be financed by federal expenditure

The NLs opposed this suggestion, and Bismarck accused them of trying to undermine German Military strength, threatening to call an election

The NLs shrank away and a compromise was reached - military budgets were fixed for 7 years at a time

Question 46

Who led the NLs, and what proportion of the vote did it have?

Answer 46

Led by Rudolf Bennigsen, representing the middle and industrial classes

In 1871 election, gained 30.1% of the vote. 1874, dropped to 29.7% but remained the largest party

Question 47

How did Bismarck and the NLs opposed the Catholics?

Answer 47

Both Bismarck and the NLs feared the Catholic Support for the Z party

The NLs thusly supported Bismarck against the Catholic Church in the “Kulturkampf”, therefore prepared to work with Bismarck until 1879 even though they disagreed a lot

Question 48

How did Bismarck break up the NLs?

Answer 48

Following an economic crash in 1873, Bismarck demanded introduction of tariffs which contrasted the NLs free trade ideology

In 1878, Bismarck’s pro-tariff message was seen as patriotic and may voters switched to the Conservative party. NL vote slumped to 23.1%

Tariff bill in 1879 led to split with more Conservative members voting with Bismarck. By August 1880, the NLs had split into the now National Liberal Party and the Liberal Union

Question 49

How did the NL offshoot, the Liberal Union, oppose Bismarck?

Answer 49

The LU won support in the Reichstag and in the 1881 election, the LU and progressive party got 21.1% of the vote, forming the German Free-minded Party in 1884, the second most popular, other than the Z

Both were opposed to Bismarck, meaning from 1881-6, Bismarck’s ability to manage the Reichstag was severely weakened and he found himself increasingly isolated there

Question 50

What were Bismarck’s concerns with the Z party?

Answer 50

The Z party supported not only German-speaking Catholics, but also Catholic non-German ethnic groups such as some Poles and French

The Catholics also had supported Austria in 1866 and opposed Italy, Germany’s ally

Question 51

What sort of things occurred in the Kulturkampf?

Answer 51

Laws which allowed state authorities to inspect Catholic Schools and ban Jesuits

1873 ‘Prussia May Laws’ established state control over the church, with the state educating and appointing priests

Church property seized, clergy unappointed by state expelled, and “Bread-Basket Law”, withdrawing financial support from any priest who did not publicly support the state

Question 52

How successful was the Kulturkampf?

Answer 52

1800 priests exiled/arrested, 16 reichsmarks of property seized

Strengthened support for the Z party, gained votes from all social classes, such as bankers. Vote share 18.6% in 1871 to 27.9% in 1874, by 1878 equal biggest to the NL

Catholics disadvantaged, less job opportunities, protestant men 50% more likely to go to university

Question 53

How did the Kulturkampf end?

Answer 53

Bismarck no longer found it politically helpful, as he was moving against the NLs and needed Z support

Pius IX died in 1878 and was replaced by Leo XIII, who was willing to work with the German government and find compromise

The Kaiser and conservatives opposed the Kulturkampf, as Catholics seen as bulwark against secular Liberalism

Question 54

What were some limitations to Germany’s unity?

Answer 54

• There was no national flag or anthem
• Sedantag, which celebrated German victory over France at Battle of Sedan, was opposed by many, southern states celebrated their own victories
• many socialist politicians viewed the national holiday as a celebration of Prussian militarism and refused to recognise it

Question 55

How did the German government influence schooling to try and instill nationalism

Answer 55

• Primary schools, High school, and Univeristies were required to teach nationalism as a subject
• Pupils in 1871 were encouraged to see 1871 as the fulfilment of a historical destiny had led to the formation of a great, unified Germany
• The school curriculum focused on instilling the values of loyalty to the Kaiser and obedience to the Kaiserreich
• Schools enforced the teaching of German over Polish or French

Question 56

How did Bismarck use two assassination attempts on Wilhelm I to push his anti-socialism?

Answer 56

Declared socialism was a threat to Germany, despite the assassins not being socialist

He dissolved the Reichstag for refusing his anti-socialist laws, and reduced the votes of the NLs (lost 130,000 votes and 29 seats) and the SADP (fell from 493,000 to 312,000)

Question 57

What did Bismarck’s “the Law for Combating the Criminal Aims of Social Democracy” (October, 1878) do

Answer 57

Prohibited socialist meetings, giving power to police to raid, search, arrest, and exile Socialist politicians

1878-90, 1500 socialist imprisoned and many more emigrated.

Bismarck wanted the bind the middle classes together in their support of the German state and conservative institutions by making them fear an internal enemy, hell bent on pursuing revolution

Question 58

How successful was Bismarck’s goals against the Catholics and the Socialists?

Answer 58

Through theses policies, Catholics were seen as loyal to the pope and socialists seen as loyal to communism. Together, they were seen as a threat to the unity of Germany by not sharing the common nationalist goals and loyalty to the Kaiser and the German nation

The banning of the SAPD, however, merely pushed the movement underground and the party still retained considerable support - by 1890 the newly named SPD had 1 million votes and 35 seats in the Reichstag

Question 59

Why were the French and Germans opposed on Catholicism by 1875?

Answer 59

By 1875, France recovered from the its defeat in 1871 and the republican government had been replaced by an aggressive royalist one.

Bismarck was concerned by the assertive France, and feared that, as Catholics, they might encourage Catholic opposition in Germany

The French had done nothing to stop French bishops criticising the Kulturkampf, and in 1874 Bismarck told the French there would be a threat to peace if France aligned with the Pope against German domestic policy

Question 60

Why was the German military concerned with the French in 1873?

Answer 60

Concerned about the French Army Organisational Law (1873) which increased French battalions from 3 to 4

The Germans estimated the French would therefore have 800,000 trained men in the case of conflict, an increase of 80,000

The German military leader, Moltke, even considered the possibility of a preventative war against France. Bismarck dismissed the idea but he was concerned by French actions too.

Question 61

How did Bismarck decide to put pressure on the French in 1875?

Answer 61

Bismarck challenged the French by building up pressure of its government to solve the situation

On 5th April 1875, the German newspaper Kölnische Zeitung (encouraged by Bismarck) published an article which painted a fearful picture of a Catholic conspiracy which claimed the French and Austrians were uniting against the Germans

Question 62

What article set off the War in Sight Crisis?

Answer 62

On the 9th April, 1875, an article in the Berliner Post asked ‘is war in sight?’. The article suggested the German government believed it was.

This press campaign put pressure on the French.

Question 63

How did the Berliner Post and the Kölnische Zeitung articles affect perceptions in Germany and Europe?

Answer 63

The articles caused considerable alarm in Germany and across Europe, with the Germans following this up with diplomatic actions making it clear they were considering a preventative war.

Von Moltke’s report on French military expansion was sent to the British and a German diplomat in Russia told the French ambassador in Berlin that many Reichstag politicians were considering a war

The French, British, and Russians were alarmed at the prospect of another European war.

Question 64

How did the British and Russians try and intervene when it came to the War in Sight Crisis?

Answer 64

Tsar Alexander II visited Germany, with support of Queen Victoria for private talks with the Kaiser

On their conclusion, the Russian Chancellor Alexander Gorchakov told the press that he felt peace was now assured

The pressure from Russia and Britain forced Bismarck to back down on his attacks on France. Bismarck, however, was furious with Gorchakov, believing that Russian and British influence had undermined his policy against France; talks between the Kaiser and Tsar had determined the direction of German policy, which he was excluded from.

Question 65

How did Bismarck change his stances following the War in Sight Crisis?

Answer 65

Bismarck became more cautious in his rhetoric against the French, stopped talking on Catholic conspiracies and focused on Diplomacy

The Three Emperors League between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia had been signed in 1873 but was weakened by the poor relations between Germany and Russia

There was increasing unease in Europe about the diplomatic goals of the new German nation