Rob Flashcards

Question

What are the situational factors that influence pro-social behaviour?

Answer 1

- The presence of other people | - People are more likely to act when they are alone

Answer 2

Bystander effect - The more people are around, the less likely someone is to help - People seek cues to action from others

Answer 3

- Participants go to interview ostensibly about issues related to university life - They complete preliminary questionnaire - Smoke pours into room for several minutes Conditions: - Alone - With two strangers (also study participants) - With two confederates who take no emergency action Results: - Alone = 75% raise alarm - Two strangers = 38% raise alarm - Two confederates = 10% raise alarm

Answer 4

``` Latane and Darley (1970) Several phases to bystander intervention: - Notices 'situation' - Interprets situation as an emergency - Feel responsible - Decide whether to help ```

Answer 5

1. Diffusion of responsibility - you're not the only potential helper 2. Audience inhibition - don't want to make a mistake in front of many people 3. Social influence - people look to others to determine what to do

Answer 6

1. Alone - Know they are alone 2. Diffusion of responsibility - Ps knows there is another person, but can neither see nor be seen by them 3. Diffusion + social influence - Can see the other participant (confederate), but knows the other participant can't see them 4. Diffusion + audience inhibition - Participant knows there is another participant who can see them, but the participant can't see the other person 5. Diffusion + social influence + audience inhibition - Participant and confederate see each other

Answer 7

- As time passes the more likely it is for the participant to help - The alone condition is the one where the participant is most likely to help - Next is the diffusion condition, and then the diffusion + influence (or inhibition) - Least likely condition to help is diffusion + influence + inhibition

Answer 8

Latane & Rodin (1969) - Apathy is less likely if the bystanders know each other - Elevated if bystanders are strangers Gottleib & Carver (1980) - Among strangers, bystander effect is reduced if they believe they will interact with each other and account for their actions Overall, bystander effect is strongest when observers are strangers for whom there is little prospect of interaction.

Answer 9

- Groups comprise a collection of interacting individuals - Where two or more individual perceive themselves as a group Where there is a collection of interdependent individuals - Where a collection of individuals work towards a common goal - Where individuals strive to satisfy common needs through their collective with others - Where roles and norms structure the interactions between a collection of. individuals - Where. there is influence between individuals in a collection

Answer 10

- How the group 'hangs together' - The property of a group that affectively binds people, as group members, to one another and to the group as a whole, giving the group a sense of solidarity and oneness

Answer 11

- Evaluate how much each member likes others in the group | - Look at the bonds that bind people to one another in groups

Answer 12

-Problems with. reducing cohesiveness to level of interpersonal attraction

Answer 13

Hogg (1993) | - Self-categorisation can account for cohesiveness

Answer 14

A prototype - People are categorised according to how similar they are to a group prototype - Categorisation of people into groups de-emphasises individual differences between people (depersonalisation)

Answer 15

- Maximising similarities between individuals who match a prototype (Assimilation) - Maximising differences between individuals match different prototypes (contrast) - Cognition and evaluation operate on category-relevant lines - The category matters to the way relevant information is processed and evaluated - Accounts for prejudice towards out-group members, and favouritism to in-group members

Answer 16

Dynamic relationship between the group and its members that describes the passage of members through a group in terms of commitment and of changing roles

Answer 17

- Shared beliefs about what is the appropriate conduct for a group member - Attitudinal and behavioural uniformities that define group membership and differentiate between groups

Answer 18

- Norms are one way groups differ - Different groups have different norms - Norms provide the framework of acceptable behaviour for group members - Norms strongly influence behaviour - A way by which group membership can influence behaviour

Answer 19

- Argued that others' behaviour indicates the range of acceptable behaviours Range of possible behaviours = Frame of reference - Extreme positions are perceived as unacceptable - Middle range (average) behaviours = acceptable

Answer 20

- Demonstration of developing a group norm using optical illusion (Autokinesis)

Answer 21

- Groups of Ss formed group norm to which individuals adhered - When subsequently tested alone, former group members still adhered to prior group norm - Group reference frame was internalised

Answer 22

- In Sherif's study, Ps uncertain of movement of spot - Ps look to group for certainty -> follow group norm - Asch looked at the influence of impact of norms when confidence (certainty) was high

Answer 23

- Task is to judge which comparison line is same length as standard line - Each member of a group calls out answer they think is correct - All but one of the people in each group are confederates How many Ps conform?

Answer 24

- 25% Ss make no erros - 28% Ss = eight (out of 12) errors - 47% Ss = one to 7 errors - Was a very easy task, when there are no confederates there was only a 0.7% error rate - As the iterations go on the confederates say the wrong answer more and more - Most of the time the participants went along with the confederates despite the fact that they know that the answer is incorrect

Answer 25

Formalised rules governing behaviour of group members

Answer 26

"Unwritten" rules of social conduct

Answer 27

- Studied implicit norms through "ethnomethodology" - Breaking norms may lead to rapid social breakdown - Emphasises importance of implicit norms in everyday interactions - Got students to violate everyday norms - Forty students acted as if they were a lodger in their own homes - Told to conduct themselves in a polite fashion and to avoid getting personal

Answer 28

- Rapid and severe breakdown in cordial family relations | -

Answer 29

- Important for group structure - Differentiate people within groups - Patterns of behaviour that distinguish between different activities within the group, and that interrelate to one another for the greater good of the group

Answer 30

- Norms apply to the whole group - Specific roles apply only to sub-sections of the group - Norms distinguish between groups - Roles function within groups to further group goals

Answer 31

- Leadership is a group-based role - Influences the leader's behaviour with respect to subordinates - Stanford prison experiment (although now subject to empirical criticism)

Answer 32

- Describe how role-based routine (habits) may have caused flight crew to forget safety procedure for unusually cold weather - Icing lead to an airliner crash

Answer 33

- How and why does performance of an individual change when in a group setting - How and why does group efficiency change as a function of its size (as size increased performance diminished) - Other studies contradict this e.g. Green (1989) "Presence of others can both facilitate and inhibit performance"

Answer 34

- When other present, dominant responses are facilitated - Dominant responses are familiar behaviours - Non-dominant responses are less familiar behaviours (can be inhibited) - Presence of others increases arousal - Increases action readiness to respond to unexpected events - Unfamiliar tasks show a performance deficit - Familiar tasks show a performance increase

Answer 35

Cottrell (1972) - Mere presence not enough to automatically cause arousal - The presence of. others implies evaluation - Potential for negative evaluation = anxiety arousing - Associated arousal leads to dominant responding

Answer 36

- Male participants undress, then. dress. in unfamiliar clothes (lab coat), then put their own clothes back on Three conditions: - Alone - Presence of a incidental person (low evaluation) - Attentive audience (high evaluation)

Answer 37

In the incidental (drive) condition: - Dressing with unfamiliar clothes inhibited - Dressing with familiar clothes facilitated - Attentive audience did not significantly add to drive effects - Results supported drive theory but not evaluation apprehension

Answer 38

- Presence of others act as a distraction from task - Distraction leads to attentional conflict - Attentional conflict induces drive effects - Increased arousal facilitates dominant responses - Performance of difficult tasks -> inhibited - Performance of easy task -> facilitated

Answer 39

- Accounts for effect of any source that can facilitate (or inhibit) performance - Can be applied to improve performance

Answer 40

(1913) | As group size increases, productivity of each individual drops

Answer 41

Group processes that prevent a group from reaching its potential productivity. Such losses include co-ordination losses and motivation losses

Answer 42

a group task that can be completed by adding together all individual members' inputs

Answer 43

- Got Ss to shout as loud as possible - Ss were blindfolded and wore 'white noise' headsets 3 conditions: - Alone - Dyad (2 people

Answer 44

- The bigger the group, the less the volume of individual members - Both groups showed a production loss

Answer 45

A reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task (one in which our outputs are pooled with those of other group members) compared with working either alone or coactively (our outputs are not pooled)

Answer 46

An either/or group task that can be completed by selecting a single group member's input to stand as the group product

Answer 47

- Most competent group members may hold back | - Group may reject best suggestion

Answer 48

- A group task requiring that all members complete it successfully

Answer 49

- A group technique aimed at enhancing creativity in groups by means of uninhibited generation of as many ideas as possible concerning a specified topic - Considered brainstorming is a good way of generating ideas

Answer 50

- Participants generating ideas alone generated twice as many ideas - When in a group of people you have to wait your turn to speak --> production blocking

Answer 51

- Behaviour among individuals that is regulated by those individuals' awareness of and identification with different social groups - Any perception, cognition or behaviour that is influenced by people's recognition that they and others are members of distinct social groups

Answer 52

- Grew from attempts to understand Nazi atrocities | - Argued such behaviour could only stem from an aberrant personality

Answer 53

- Over-disciplining parenting can lead the child to have an unconscious hostility to parents - Society dictates that presenting this hostility to parents is not allowed - Child learns to redirect hostility elsewhere - Tendency to obey authority figures - F-scale is used to measure authoritarian personalities

Answer 54

1. Focuses on the individual, ignores societal influences - Pettigrew (1958) - Personality did not differ between North and South USA despite higher prejudice in the South 2. Individual differences (in authoritarianism) cannot not explain wide-spread societal uniformity in prejudice 3. Authoritarianism cannot explain sudden emergence of prejudice at certain points in history

Answer 55

Conflict arises from goal-striving

Answer 56

Groups competing for the same goal that only one can get

Answer 57

Two or more groups that are all trying to achieve the same goal. One group cannot achieve the goal themselves, they need to work with other groups

Answer 58

- Ethnocentrism originates in real conflicts of interest between groups

Answer 59

- Participants attend a summer camp - Ps are divided into two groups Studies have 4 stages: 1. Arrival at camp 2. Group formation 3. Inter-group competition 4. Conflict reduction

Answer 60

1. Hard to generalise from this study as ps were 12 year old, middle class boys 2. Set up is artificial 3. Ethical issue because there was no consent from the kids 4. Difficult to isolate variables responsible for realistic conflict 5. Inadvertent researcher influence as they researchers were the 'group leaders'

Answer 61

1. Blake and Mouton (1961) - conflict in business management training groups 2. Diab (1970) - inter-ethnic conflict among young people in Lebanon 3. Brewer and Campbell (1976) - Study of competition among tribal groups in Africa 4. Tyerman and Spencer (1983) - difficulty replicating conflict between different scout groups

Answer 62

A set of experimental procedures designed to create ad hoc groups on essentially arbitrary criteria with no knowledge of who else belongs to each group. Once such a situation has been created, people's perceptions of or reward allocations to the group may be measured.

Answer 63

- Group assignment on trivial criteria - Ps knew which group they were in. - Other group members anonymous - Ps have to allocate money to individual group members (identified only by their code number) - Ps could not award money to themselves

Answer 64

- Tendency to assign more money to in-group

Answer 65

- Group memberships has self-esteem implications | - Tend to evaluate in-groups positively to maintain a positive identity

Answer 66

The individual's knowledge that he (she) belongs to certain social groups together with some emotional and value significance to him (her) of the group membership

Answer 67

- Achieved through differentiating groups based on features favouring the in-group - Differences in value-laden features will be exaggerated

Answer 68

- A way to boost group esteem (and hence self-esteem) is to allocate more money to the in-group - Thus the in-group is made 'better' than the out-group

Answer 69

- Conflict can occur when groups perceive the current status quo can be changed - When status quo is seen as legitimate and cannot be changed there is social climbing and social creativity

Answer 70

Process of self-categorisation

Answer 71

- Accounts for the cognition of categorisation | - The basis unit of categorisation is the prototype

Answer 72

- "Fuzzy" representation of the ideal object or group - Represents a given group and helps differentiate from other groups - Maximise the ratio of between-group differences to within-group differences - Accentuates group entitativity (meta-contrast principle)

Answer 73

Assimilation: - Maximising similarities between individuals who match a prototype Contrast: - Maximise differences between individuals who match different prototypes

Answer 74

- Facilitates categorising individuals into groups - Categorisation of people into groups de-emphasises individual differences between people (depersonalisation) - Group members perceived as similar to the group prototype - Extent to which a member 'fits' the group depends on similarity to prototype

Answer 75

- A single process accounts for how social groups are differentiated - Cognition becomes organised along salient self-category lines - When people perceive themselves as part of the group, they adopt the norms of the group

Answer 76

A social influence process through which an individual intentionally exerts influence over others to structure the behaviours and relationships between a group or organisation

Answer 77

Certain characteristics acquired in early life may make for leadership

Answer 78

- Intelligence - Talkative - Taller - Healthy - Physically attractive - Self-confident - Sociable - Dominant

Answer 79

Stodgill (1948) - Evidence did not support trait approach Stodgill (1974) - Correlation between traits and effective leadership low - Average r = .3

Answer 80

- Extraversion - Agreeableness - Conscientiousness - Emotional stability - Openness to experience

Answer 81

Judge et al (2002) - Big 5 traits r = 0.58 with effective leadership Best predictors: - Extraversion - Openness to experience - Conscientiousness

Answer 82

- Narcissism - Machiavellianism - Psychopathy

Answer 83

Approach to leadership that focuses on the way that leaders transform group goals and actions - mainly through the exercise of charisma. Also a style of leadership based on charisma.

Answer 84

- Idealised influence - Inspirational motivation - Intellectually stimulating - Individualised consideration

Answer 85

- Inspire their workforce - Enable the workforce to pursue 'greater good' - Give group tasks meaning and focus

Answer 86

- After-school clubs: different leadership styles Groups led by confederates in one of three leadership styles: - Autocratic (leader is results oriented) - Democratic (leader takes input of members) - Laissez-faire (leader is hands-off)

Answer 87

Autocratic: - Better performance when leader was present - Worse when leader was absent - Group members depended on leader direction Democratic: - Reasonably high performance regardless of presence or absence of leader - Members perform to an agreed norm

Answer 88

1. Relationship-oriented style 2. Task-oriented style A person can score high on both dimensions If you score high on both you are the 'perfect' leader

Answer 89

The leadership effectiveness of leadership behaviours or styles is contingent on the leadership situation - some styles are better suited to some situations or tasks than others are

Answer 90

- Uses the Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) scale - Leader assesses subordinate whom they get on least well with - High score indicates a relationship oriented style - Low score indicates task oriented style

Answer 91

Leader style may interact with situational factors to determine group effectiveness - Leader-member relations - Task structure - Position power - Factors combine to form 8 types of situation - Fiedler presented correlations between leadership style and group performance for each of these 8 situations - Relationship oriented leadership most effective when conditions neither highly favourable or unfavourable

Answer 92

- Effective leaders tend to be those who embody group prototype most closely - Prototypical leaders are more effective than non-prototypical

Answer 93

- Embody the group's attributes - Make popular leaders so wield more influence - Are invested in the group and so are more likely to behave in group-serving ways - Attract attention because they embody the group's prototype

Answer 94

- Ps must decide on one of two courses of action Course 1: more desirable outcome but higher risk Course 2: less desirable outcome but lower risk - Ps decide alone - Ps then placed in groups Results: - Risky shit - Groups opted for the riskier option than individuals did

Answer 95

Tendency for group discussions to produce more extreme group decisions than the mean of members' pre-discussion opinions, in the direction favoured by the mean

Answer 96

- Persuasive arguments theory - People form opinions based on currently available information - Prevailing opinion expressed more - This polarises each person's own position

Answer 97

- People seek social approval | - Seek what the group norm is and shift position to this

Answer 98

Assimilation: - Where group. members' views polarise to a perceived norm Contrast: - Where polarisation acts to exacerbate difference between in-group and potential out-groups

Answer 99

A mode of thinking in highly cohesive groups in which the desire to reach unanimous agreement overrides the motivation too adopt proper rational decision-making procedures

Answer 100

- Very close knit - Expressing alternative solutions not possible - Leader favours a particular solution - Creates an illusion of vulnerability

Answer 101

Any form of behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment

Answer 102

- Theories which incorporate biological drive and a psychological element - In humans, the expression of aggression is not necessarily inevitable

Answer 103

- Aggression arises from state of frustration - Frustration is a pre-requisite for aggression - Goal striving causes arousal - Achieving a goal is cathartic - When goal attainment is frustrated, aggression often used to vent psychological arousal - Aggression is usually targeted towards the source of goal thwarting - Displacement (scapegoating) occurs if this is not possible

Answer 104

Marcus-Newhall et al (2000): - Meta-analysis of 49 studies - Frustration leads to displaced aggression

Answer 105

Berkowitz (1962); Bandura (1973) - Frustration does not always lead to aggression - Aggression can occur in the absence of frustration

Answer 106

- Frustration did not always lead to aggression - Aggression is a dominant response in a hierarchy of responses - Frustration leads to an action readiness - This can lead to aggression depending on presence of aggressive cues

Answer 107

- In the presence of weapon cues, frustrated individuals responded more aggressively than non-frustrates Ps - The 'weapons effect'

Answer 108

- Residual arousal from an unrelated event can feed readiness to aggress in a new situation - Residual non-specific arousal is labelled from cues in the environment - If the cue primes an aggressive response, then aggression becomes the dominant response

Answer 109

- Group 1 do non-arousing task - Group 2 do physical exercise (arousal) task - Two minutes later, half the Ps receive provocation (loud sound blast) - Six minutes later, Ps given opportunity to administer noise blasts to the person who provoked them - Participants in high residual arousal group administered more intensive sound blasts

Answer 110

- Consider where repertoire of aggressive responses arise from - Aggressive responding can be learned

Answer 111

- Acquisition of a desired object through aggression can reinforce aggressive behaviour

Answer 112

- Anti- and pro-social behaviour can be learned Socialisation and learning influences the: 1. Acquisition of aggressive behaviour or behaviour sequences 2. Instigation of overt acts of aggression 3. Maintenance of aggression - By watching another person successfully enact a behaviour, an observer can learn that behaviour (Vicarious learning)

Answer 113

- Seeing someone successfully aggress may produce changes in the observer's aggression-related expectancies - Learning is enhanced if the actor is seen to be rewarded for the aggression (Vicarious reinforcement)

Answer 114

- People gain certain 'scripts' from experiences in life - If someone comes from a routinely aggressive household, they are more likely to be aggressive Green (1998) Ambiguous situations more likely interpreted as aggressive by people with a history of aggression

Answer 115

Sets out the information processing steps involved in aggressive responses

Answer 116

Brings together a range of previous approaches into a unified whole

Answer 117

- Was use of Bobo doll target actual aggression? - Was it realistic to allow children to aggress in exactly the same circumstances as modelled aggression - Adult modelling in Bobo doll set-up very unlike aggression depicted on TV

Answer 118

- Children ages 5 to 9 watch a short clip from a film - Aggressive-programme group - Non-aggressive programme group - Subsequent task: Each child presented opportunity to help or 'hurt' another child with a task - Children in the aggressive-programme group pressed chose to 'hurt' significantly more

Answer 119

- Button-pressing unrealistic of everyday aggression - Task does not allow for retaliation - Exposure to TV unrealistically short - Exposure to single TV clip unrepresentative of normal 'TV diet' - Children may have thought experimenter approved

Answer 120

- Respondents cueing for cinema complete a questionnaire in one of four conditions: 1. Waiting to see a violent film 2. Having just seen a violent film 3. Waiting to see a non-violent film 4. Having just seen a non-violent film - Violent films lead to a tendency to be violent - In the violent film condition, there is a tendency to be more violent after watching the film

Answer 121

Studied violent cues depicted in video games and effects on: 1. Hostility (hostile cognitions) 2. Physiological arousal

Answer 122

Players on maximum and medium blood settings showed: - Increased hostility - Increased physiological arousal - Used character's weapon significantly more

Answer 123

Meta-analysis of 35 research reports Video game exposure associated with: - Increased aggressive behaviour - Reduced pro-social (helping) behaviour - Increased aggressive thoughts - Increased aggressive feelings - Increased physiological arousal

Answer 124

- Crime among young adults is associated with boredom - Computer technology gives young people something to do - New video games occupy the criminal so reduce crime

Answer 125

Compared changes in USA violent crimes with : 1. Monthly changes in video game sales 2007-2011 2. Changes in internet searches for violent game walkthroughs and guides 3. Violent crimes following release of three popular games

Answer 126

- Higher video game sales were associated with lower concurrent violent crime - Higher game-related internet searches were associated with lower subsequent (after two months) aggravated assaults and homicides - Homicides significantly decreased 3-4 months following release of three popular games

Answer 127

- Attitudes may influence behaviour - They can predict behaviour - They can change behaviour - They are thus useful to social investigators

Answer 128

- Actual vs self-report prejudice for chinese people in american restaurants - Found clear discrepancy between expressed attitude and actual behaviour

Answer 129

1. Automaticity (implicitly) | 2. Volitionally

Answer 130

- Efficient processing of information: processing shortcuts (Smith and Mackie, 2000) - Attitudes are pre-established evaluations which easily come to mind - Efficient "guides" to behaviour

Answer 131

1. Occur outside of awareness 2. Unintended 3. Uncontrollable 4. Efficient Social psychologists focus on two characteristics: 1. Efficiency 2. Lack of awareness

Answer 132

- When attitudes come to mind effortlessly and inescapably | - Automatic attitudes are uncontrollable and unintended

Answer 133

Association between the internal representation of an object with an evaluation

Answer 134

- 'Strength' refers to the strength of the association between object representation and evaluation - Strong object-evaluation association leads to faster attitude accessibility - Attitude accessibility is the speed and ease of attitude activation

Answer 135

- Whenever object representation and evaluation are paired in memory - Over time, the evaluation is incorporated into the representation of the object

Answer 136

- Ps evaluated a series of attitude objects (attitude rehearsal) - Control: Ps gave non-evaluative responses - Subsequent testing: Ps provided evaluations of the previously presented objects as quickly as possible Results: - Attitude rehearsal led to faster responding - Repeated object-evaluation pairing enhanced attitude accessibility

Answer 137

- Phase 1: Identified response speed to 70 'good' or 'bad' object words - RT indicates strength of feeling toward each object - Phase 2: Ps shown positive words and negative words - Ps indicate if word is positive or negative - A prime is presented just before each target word - Prime is a word from phase 1 identified as either positive of negative which Ps reacted to quickly

Answer 138

- Faster responding when target and prime had some valence - Slower responding when valences inconsistent - Prime facilitated or interfered with task of indicating positivity or negativity of target words - Automatic evaluations (of the prime) occurred

Answer 139

- Attitude accessibility determines attitude-behaviour consistency - Spontaneous behaviour will occur when attitudes are easily activated

Answer 140

- People attend things which are evaluatively salient Roskos-Ewoldsen and Fazio (1992) - Those who rehearsed their attitudes more likely to subsequently notice attitude object Calitri, Low, Eves and Bennett (2009) - Implicit attitudes to exercise were associated with visual attention to exercise cues

Answer 141

- Through assimilation and contrast. | - Ambiguous information may be interpreted as supportive of attitude

Answer 142

- Spontaneous behaviour occurs when either the motivation or the opportunity to make a reasoned decisioned is low, only attitudes that are highly accessible will predict spontaneous behaviour - Behaviour will not always be consistent with automatic attitudes when people are motivated or able to deliberate about doing the behaviour

Answer 143

- Fazio posits that attitudes are object-driven evaluation associations stored in memory - What is the nature of the memory associations? - is memory involved?

Answer 144

- Ps unaware that they are making evaluative judgements - Ps presented normatively +ve and -ve words as subliminal primes - Primes followed by target. words which they merely have to pronounce

Answer 145

Results: - Valence consistent --> faster response - Valence inconsistent --> slower response - Evidences automatic evaluation - Some prime-target pares were semantically unrelated --> the only thing they had in common was valence - Processes requiring memory of shared meanings between concepts can not explain these results Either: - All positive objects shared a common memory representation or - People were making evaluative judgements 'on line' e.g. without reference to memory. of a single specific individual object-evaluation - Memory for a 'single tag' object-evaluation could not account for this

Answer 146

- Show attitudes are heavily influenced by contextual features of the situation - Attitude toward a target can change depending on the target's salient feature (s) at the time of the evaluation

Answer 147

- Black athletes vs white politicians - When a task emphasised occupation ps automatically. evaluated black athletes as more positive than white politicians - But when a task emphasised race participants evaluated white politicians more favourably

Answer 148

- Attitudes are an evaluation of an 'object-centred context' | - All salient value-loaded information contributed (target and context)

Answer 149

Attitudes comprise: - Expectancy of object having an attribute - Evaluation of attribute - An attitude is an overall summary of all salient attributes and their associated evaluations (salient = relevant in that moment)

Answer 150

Combination of all relevant expectancy and evaluation terms Attitude = sum of expectancy x value

Answer 151

LaPierre (1934), Corey (1937) | - Attitudes not predictive of behaviour

Answer 152

- Measured appropriately, attitude can predict behaviour Each behaviour has 4 characteristics: 1. Specific action 2. Directed toward or on a specific target 3. In a context. 4. At a particular time

Answer 153

- Predictions of birth control pill use over 2 years Used attitude measures differing in specificity - "Attitudes towards birth control" (.08) - "Attitudes towards birth control pills" (.32) - "Attitudes towards using birth control pills" (.53) - "Attitudes towards using birth control pills during the next 2 years" (.57)

Answer 154

Students (non donors) completed questionnaire assessing: - General attitude to organ donation - Specific attitude to registering as a donor - Outcome measure: subsequent return of completed donor registration form

Answer 155

- General attitude: 18.5% variance in organ donation registration behaviour - Specific attitude: 46% variance in organ donation registration behaviour

Answer 156

- Attitudes can predict behaviour so as long as principle of compatibility. is followed - Attitudes predict behaviour via behavioural intentions (Intentions = mental link between attitude and behaviour)

Answer 157

- Volitional behaviour is a product of rational decision process - Decision based on salient beliefs - Intention is most immediate influence on behaviour - Complete personal control is assumed - TRA identifies underlying determinants of behavioural intentions

Answer 158

1. Attitude towards the behaviour | 2. Subjective norm

Answer 159

- Comprise of approval/disapproval of referents towards behaviour Function of: - Normative beliefs (expectancy term ) - Motivation to comply (value term) Social norm = sum of normative beliefs x compliance motivation

Answer 160

- Multiple correlation for predicting intentions: R = .66 - Correlation for predicting behaviour: r = .53 - Many daily activities are not under complete control - Need to include control component to predict these

Answer 161

- Incorporates control factors - Accounts for behavioural intentions in situations lacking complete control - Attitude towards the behaviour and subjective norm remain - Adds perceived behavioural control (PBC): ease of performing the behaviour

Answer 162

- PBC is a function of. control beliefs - It is the likelihood of helping or hindering factor being present (expectancy term) - Has the power to help or hinder (value term) Two types of control factor: 1. Internal factors (e.g. skills, abilities, knowledge) 2. External factors (e.g. barriers, dependence on others) PBC = sum of likelihood of factor x facilitating/inhibiting power - PBC influences intention because people intend to do behaviours which they have a chance of completing - Direct link between PBC and behaviour reflects extent to which PBC measures actual control

Answer 163

- Study of weight loss among college students | - Addition of PBC improved prediction of intention from r = .65 to .72

Answer 164

- Compared highly controllable behaviours (e.g. taking vitamin supplements) and less controllable (e.g. getting a good night's sleep) Results: - Inclusion of PBC only improved prediction of intentions and behaviour for the less controllable behaviour - PBC useful only when complete control is not possible

Answer 165

- Meta-analysis - Attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control predicted between 40% and 50% of variance in intention - Intention and perceived behaviour control predicted between 19% and 36% of variance in behaviour

Answer 166

Gollwitzer (1993) - Lack of 1:1 correspondence between intentions and behaviour Gollwitzer (1993) Bagozzi (1993) - TRA and TPB do not explain how intentions lead to behaviour

Answer 167

- Goal-directed behaviour is a 2 stage process 1) Motivation phase: form intention (goal intention - what you want to achieve) 2) Action phase: Form plan to pursue goal (implementation intention)

Answer 168

Implementation intentions have 3 elements: 1) Specifies context ("where") 2) Specifies time ("when") 3) Specified action to achieve the goal ("how") E.g. "If I am on my way to college (where) tomorrow morning (when), then I will post this letter in the pillar box (how)" - It is a commitment to act in a specific situation - Situation cues memory for intended action - The situation is chosen to ensure opportunity for action

Answer 169

- Students volunteer to write a report - Everyone intended to write the report (goal intention) - Condition 1: Ps provided implementation intention (state where, when, and how they will write their report) - Condition 2: Ps did not provide implementation intentions Results: - Implementation intentions --> 71% wrote report - No implementation intention --> 32% wrote report

Answer 170

- Breast self-examination (BSE) intentions - All women intended to self-examine over next month (goal intention) - Intervention group provided implementation. intentions - Control group did not Results: - Intervention group: 64% performed BSE - Control group: 14% performed BSE

Answer 171

- Implementation intentions as an intervention to increase fruit consumption - 120 participants allocated to either an implementation intention or a control condition Results: - Significant increases in fruit consumption in the experimental condition - No significant increase in the control condition - Findings supportive of Gollwitzer's model

Answer 172

- TPB may be compatible with models of automatic attitudes and spontaneous behaviour - Where opportunity or motivation exists behaviour is volitional, and there is a reasoned action approach to behavioural decision making (TPB) - Where opportunity or motivation is absent spontaneous behaviour may be influenced by automatic attitudes

Answer 173

Interruption to any step can negate persuasion 1. Get audience attention 2. Get audience to comprehend message 3. Get audience to accept (yield to) message 4. Get audience to retain their new attitude 5. Get audience to act on new attitude

Answer 174

3 important characteristics: 1. Source or communicator 2. Message 3. Audience

Answer 175

- The expertise heuristic - People tend to believe experts - This is a function of credibility - A critical feature of the expertise heuristic is the perceived competence of the communicator

Answer 176

- Study of beliefs about necessary sleep hours - Students indicated how many sleep hours per night they thought was necessary - Average was 8 hours - Ps divided into several groups - One group given information about necessary sleep hours supposedly provided by YMCA instructor (low credibility) - Another group given some information but supposedly from a Nobel Prize winning sleep scientist (high credibility)

Answer 177

- Ps much more likely to believe the Nobel scientist | - Maximum change in Ps attitude occurred when scientist recommended 1. hour (7 hours difference from Ps 8 hours)

Answer 178

- Repetition (Familiarity heuristic) - Simply repeating a statement makes it seem more true - However, repetition may not work with a new or unfamiliar product: some 'brand familiarity' helps (Campbell and Keller, 2003)

Answer 179

- The message in the message-learning approach being one that. causes fear - Fear will have the biggest impact on attitude change when the fear is moderate

Answer 180

Best medium (written, audio, video) depends on message complexity Simple messages: video Complex messages: written material

Answer 181

- Low self esteem --> more easily persuaded McGuire (1968); Rhodes and Wood (1992): - Those with high or low self esteem are less easily persuaded - People with low self esteem tend to be more socially anxious and therefore may be distractible --> less likely to pay attention to the message - People with high self esteem are more self assured and therefore tend to have their own views and opinions and so are harder to persuade

Answer 182

- McGuire assumed the audience actively processes the material - Ancillary features can also influence persuasion

Answer 183

- Information processing models - Emphasise two routes for persuasion: 1. High effort - deliberative route 2. Low effort - automatic route

Answer 184

- Deliberative = central route - Low effort route = peripheral route - Elaboration likelihood = likelihood of using central route Function of: - Motivation - Capacity/ability - Central route processing lead to stronger attitudes

Answer 185

Peripheral cues: - Increase persuasion when processing via peripheral route Motivation: - Motivation plays a role when elaboration likelihood is moderate Argument quality: - If engaging in central route processing then persuasion is more likely when your argument is good Need for cognition: - Individual difference influence - Some people are more likely to use central route processing because they like to think more

Answer 186

- The HSM overcomes some weaknesses in the ELM - Specifies when high- and low-effort processing might be used - The 'sufficiency principle'

Answer 187

- HSM has a high- and low-effort routes to decision making | - Which route used depends on motivation and capacity/ability

Answer 188

- High-effort route = systematic route (HSM) - Processes all available information in a comprehensive way - Low effort route defined more rigidly than for ELM - Low effort = heuristic route - Requires the presence of an existing heuristic (cognitive shortcut)

Answer 189

- Experts are generally right - All these people agree so it must be true - Tabloid papers can't be trusted

Answer 190

Unlike the ELM, the HSM argues that even under systematic processing, heuristic information may still be used

Answer 191

- The HSM is more specific than the ELM in when systematic processing will be engaged - People want sufficient confidence in their judgements before accepting a position Confidence sufficiency is determined by" - Sufficiency threshold - Confidence in the communication - If Confidence lower than sufficiency threshold person uses systematic route

Answer 192

- An unpleasant state of psychological tension generated when a person has two or more cognitions (bits of information) that are inconsistent or do not fit together - Festinger proposed that we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviour , and try to reduce tension from inconsistency between these elements

Answer 193

- Co-occurrence of inconsistent beliefs, attitudes or behaviours - Cognitive tension resolve by changing one of the beliefs/attitudes so both are consistent - Therefore, cognitive dissonance can be a route to attitude change

Answer 194

Dissonance can lead to denial/avoidance and therefore there can be a resistance to persuasion

Answer 195

- Attitude is strong --> resources to rebut contradictory communication - Attitude is weak --> motivation to find out more --> attend communication

Answer 196

- Alternative to cognitive dissonance | - People infer attitudes from behaviour

Answer 197

According to dissonance, you might change your attitude to resolve the inconsistency According to self-perception, behaviour provides information about what the attitude should be

Answer 198

To attribute another person's behaviour to his or her own dispositional qualities, rather than to situational factors Correspondence bias: - Where behaviour seems to match a corresponding trait, there is a tendency to assume the trait is the cause - Changed because fundamental attribution error is not fundamental

Answer 199

- Os read a pro- or anti-Castro essay 2 conditions: 1. Ps told writer has a free. choice of pro- or anti-Castro stance 2. Ps told write instructed on stance

Answer 200

- In both conditions, Ps believed essays reflected the writer's attitudes - Failure to consider situational influence in condition 2

Answer 201

- Attributional processes are a function of perceptual experience - The actor is the most salient (i.e. obvious and animate) part of the 'scene' - Scene therefore focus for any explanation - Background factors attract less attention

Answer 202

Got people to re-focus attention onto the situation (rather than the actor) Result: Increased situational attributions

Answer 203

Dispositional explanations take time to develop in children

Answer 204

- Fundamental attribution error is not universal | - Common in western cultures; less so in non-western cultures

Answer 205

- In English language, actor and action are often described in the same terms (He was an honest man; he acted honestly) - Does not extend to describing situations - English language facilitates person-centred explanations

Answer 206

- People tend to forget situational factors more easily than dispositional factors - Causes shift towards dispositional explanations across time - Miller and Porter (1980) found conflicting evidence

Answer 207

- If a person acts in a particular way they are likely to act the same way in the future - Confers power of prediction

Answer 208

- An extension of the Correspondence Bias by including biases on an observer may have when explaining their own behaviour - Observers tend to attribute their own behaviour to situational factors

Answer 209

- People 'invent' what they think other's believe to explain (justify) their own behaviour - Assumed people use consensus information to validate own explanation of the social world - Research shows people do not use 'real' consensus information

Answer 210

- Similar to field explanation for FAE - Actor is more salient than background situation - Explanations of actor behaviour tend to be dispositional - Observer can not see their own behaviour - The situation forms the perceptual field - Observers explain own behaviour with reference to situation

Answer 211

- Experiment reverses perceptual field of actors and observers - Two people have conversation across a table (actor 1 and 2) - Each watched by an observer (observer 1 and 2) - Video cameras also record each perspective - Used recordings to change the actor/observer perspective - Actors now observe themselves and vice versa

Answer 212

- Actors and observers reverse attributions - Actors now attribute own behaviour to dispositional factors - Observes explained other actor's behaviour to situational causes

Answer 213

- Actors know their own motive, past behaviour, and context of current situation - More likely to attribute to situational factors - Observers unaware of contextual influences on behaviour - Less likely to make situational influences

Answer 214

- Ps asked to walk around in a sandwich board proclaiming "Eat at Joe's" Results: - Ps who agree estimated that 62% of other students would also agree to walk around with the sandwich board - Ps who declined estimated that 67% of other students would also decline - Ps created their own consensus

Answer 215

- People seek company of people similar to themselves - Falsely assume most people are similar to themselves - People similar to ourselves more likely to be salient when trying to recall census information

Answer 216

- When inferring consensus information we tend to only consider salient information (our own opinions) - Therefore falsely believe other's share our opinions - Considering alternatives reduces false consensus effect

Answer 217

- Motivated to see ourselves as good, typical people - Maintains self-esteem - Therefore, falsely attribute our attitudes/beliefs to others

Answer 218

Attributional distortions that protect or enhance self-esteem or the self concept

Answer 219

1. Self-enhancing bias | 2. Self-protecting bias

Answer 220

- People will accept 'blame' for failure if likely to have future control over cause - People with high and low self-esteem tend too take credit for success (Campbell and Fairey, 1985) - High self-esteem shows self-protecting bias with failure - Low self-esteem does not show self-protecting bias with failure

Answer 221

- People tend to do things they expect to succeed in - People work at succeeding - Self-enhancing bias reflects co-occurence of effort and success

Answer 222

- Ultimate attribution error In-group members attribute: - Dispositionally for in-group success - Situationally for in-group failure - Situationally for out-group success - Dispositionally for out-group failure

Answer 223

- Studied these group-serving biases in Malaysia - Used vignettes depicting desirable and undesirable behaviours - Vignettes identify actors in vignettes as either Malaysians or Chinese - Ps provide explanations for vignette actors' behaviour

Answer 224

- Demonstrated group-serving bias among the Malaysian participants - Desirable behaviour by Malaysian actor attributed disposition more than for Chinese actor - Undesirable behaviour by Malaysian actor attributed to situation more than for Chinese actor - Vice versa for Chinese

Answer 225

- Use of stereotypes - Expectancy-consistent behaviour attribute to internal factors - Expectancy-inconsistent behaviour attributed to external factors

Answer 226

- Derived from social identity theory - In-group members boost self-esteem from group-serving biases - Maintain positive in-group identity with favourable comparisons to out-groups

Answer 227

- People use cues to 'label' (explain) ambiguous arousal | - Emotions differ according to how arousal is attributed

Answer 228

- Ambiguous physiological arousal - Cognition which labels arousal - Links arousal to an emotional situation - Identifies which emotion is experienced

Answer 229

- Attributions as trait-like | - "Attributional style"

Answer 230

- Learned helplessness | - Attributional style

Answer 231

A tendency to make particular kinds of casual inferences, rather than others, across different situations and across time

Answer 232

- Depression result of learned helplessness - Phase 1: Dogs receive electric shocks which they could not escape - Phase 2: 24 hours later the dogs were placed in a two-compartment box, shocks administered, dogs could easily escape shocks Results: - Two thirds failed to attempt to escape - Control dogs (no phase 1) all escaped

Answer 233

- Phase 1 dogs 'learned' there was no connection between actions and receipt of shocks - Learned helplessness generalised to Phase 2 environment - Dogs look depressed

Answer 234

1. People experience events attributed as uncontrollable 2. Reinforces helplessness 3. Leads to passive behaviour in adverse situations and... 4. Inability to learn from successful escape responses

Answer 235

- Looked at depression in people with and implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) - Shocks are not predictable, and can be distressing Results: - Number of ICD shocks significantly predicted depressive symptoms - Depression could be linked to the (unpredictable) ICD shocks

Answer 236

- Critical feature of Seligman set-up was lack of controllability - More to depression than a lack of control - Learned helplessness does not account for the chronicity and generality of depression

Answer 237

- Attributions of why the bad situation occurred | - Dispositional way people make attributions

Answer 238

- Attributions made along three dimensions Internality - externality - Locus of cause - Accounts for self-esteem deficits in depression Stable - unstable - Temporal permanence of cause - Accounts for chronicity of depression Global - specific - Degree of influence cause has over other aspects of life - Accounts for generality/pervasiveness of depression

Answer 239

Tendency to attribute negative events to causes which are: - Internal (caused by themselves) - Stable (is an enduring factor) - Global (affects many aspects of their lives) Also tend to attribute positive events to causes which are: - External (not caused by themselves) - Unstable (unlikely to be a causal factor again) - Specific (affects only this one aspect)

Answer 240

- Attributional style implies consistency across time - Peterson et al. (1982) - Used attributional style questionnaire (ASQ) - Correlations of dimensions between two time-points (5 weeks) were .57 to .69 - Attributions relatively stable (dispositional)

Answer 241

- 143 students provided information on attributional style and depression (BDI) Results: - Correlations between attributional components and depression were: - Internality: .41 - Stability: .34 - Globality: .35

Answer 242

- Ps decide whether to press a button when a yellow light comes on - Either pressing the button or not pressing the button may be 'correct' depending on rules of the program - The Ps do not know rules Two conditions: 1. Loose condition - Ps start with $5 but loose up to 25 cents with a wrong decision 2. Win condition - Ps start with no money but gain 25 cents on a correct decision - At end of experiment, Ps estimate how much control they thought they had - "Correct" answer should be zero control

Answer 243

Non-depressed people took the bright view: - Claimed control for winning - Externalised control for losing - Self-serving bias ``` Depressed people (indicated on BDI) more realistic: - Estimated around zero control whether winning or losing ``` - Depressive attribution was more realistic

Answer 244

- Studies of coping with life-threatening illness show optimism as being adaptive Carver et al (1993) - Study of adjustment to breast cancer - Found optimists less likely to 'give-up' than pessimists

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