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Year 2 From Individuals to Society > Gabriela > Flashcards

Gabriela Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is an affect?

A

Psychological states that involves valuation, defined as a relatively quick good-for-me/bad-for-me valuation

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2
Q

What are moods

A
  • low intensity
  • diffuse affective states
  • no salient antecedent
  • little content
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3
Q

What are emotions?

A
  • Short-lived
  • Conscious
  • Prototypical content
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4
Q

Evolutionary perspectives of emotions

A
  • Emotions selected for survival (Darwin, 1872)
  • Emotions as commitment (e.g. love, punishment) for long term goals (Frank, 1998)
  • Emotions as superordinate coordination (Cosmides and Tooby, 2000)
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5
Q

What are primary emotions

A
  • Shared with other animals

- E.g. anger, fear, happiness

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6
Q

What are secondary emotions?

A
  • Self conscious or social
  • Unique to humans
  • Less visible
  • Develop later in life
  • Have a social regulatory function
  • E.g. embarrassment, guilt, shame
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7
Q

How are emotions traditionally seen?

A

Seen as states with personal relevance that involve specific cognitive, physiological and experiential components

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8
Q

What are macro-expressions?

A
  • Expressions of single emotions that are not concealed
  • They last .5 to 4 seconds
  • Easy to see
  • Mostly universal
  • Prototypical, but. not clear cut e.g. a ‘true’ smile vs a ‘fake’ smile
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9
Q

What are micro-expressions?

A
  • Very fast (less than a second)
  • Appear in combination. with other emotions
  • Often signs of concealed emotions
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10
Q

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

Stack et al., 1998
McCanne and Anderson, 1987

A

Facial movement can influence emotional experience

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11
Q

What is Darwin’s (1872) idea of facial emotion?

A
  • Facial expression of emotion evolved as part of the actions necessary for life

Anger –> frowning
- Protects eyes in anticipation of attack

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12
Q

Facial feedback hypothesis study (How funny are cartoons)

Strack, Martin and Stepper, 1988

A

Manipulation: Activation of facial muscles

Dependent variable: Measure of facial electromyography

  • Inhibition or facilitation of smiling muscles modulated how funny cartoons were perceived to be
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13
Q

Divided attention experiment

Larsen et al., 1992

A
  • 30 Ps
  • Within-subjects
  • Attach two golf tees to the subject’s brow
  • Looked to see whether the golf tees pulled together (activates corrugator supercilii)
  • Shown aversive photographs
  • Measured experience of sadness
  • Results showed that frowning led to increased sadness
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14
Q

How does facial feedback work?

A
  1. Subtle muscle contractions. in. the perceiver’s face generate an afferent muscular feedback signal from the face to the brain
  2. Perceiver uses this feedback to reproduce and understand the perceived emotional meaning
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15
Q

What do intrapersonal functions of emotions do?

A
  • Prepare the body for action
  • Influence thought
  • Motivate for future behaviours
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16
Q

What do interpersonal functions of emotions do?

A
  • Facilitate. specific behaviours in perceivers
  • Signal the nature of interpersonal relationships
  • Provide incentives for desired social behaviour
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17
Q

How do emotions work?

A

Emotions simultaneously activate certain systems and deactivate others in order to prevent the chaos of competing systems operating at the same time, allowing for coordinated responses to environmental stimuli

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18
Q

What happens when we are afraid?

A
  • Digestive processes shut down –> dry mouth
  • Blood flows disproportionately to lower half of the body
  • Visual field expands
  • Air is breathed in
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19
Q

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion (1980)?

A
  • Emotions are the perception of physiological conditions that result from a stimulus

E.g. We don’t see a bear, fear it, and run
We see a bear and run, then we fear it

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20
Q

What are the consequences of affect?

A
  • Affect triggers action tendencies
  • Activates relevant goals
  • Determines selective memory and processing styles
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21
Q

What happened to Phineas Gage?

A
  • Railway explosion on 13 sept 1848 at. 4:30 pm led. to accident
  • Gage was alive and had possession of reason but was free of pain
  • Had a personality change: Became anti-social, uncaring, impulsive and irrational
  • Lesion in Ventromedial region of frontal lobes caused poor rational decision making and processing of emotion
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22
Q

What happens in patients with ventromedial lesions of the frontal lobes?

A
  • Largely preserve intellectual abilities

- Show abnormal personal and social decision making

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23
Q

What is the Somatic Marker Hypothesis?

Damasio (1996)

A
  • Emotional processes guide behaviour, particularly decision making

Somatic markers = feelings in the body that are associated with emotions e.g. rapid heartbeat - anxiety; nausea - disgust

  • Thought to be processed in the vmPFC and amygdala
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24
Q

How does arousal facilitate memory consolidation?

Mather and Sutherland (2011)

A
  • Arousing experiences create long lasting memories
  • Injections of adrenaline after learning enhance memory
  • Exercise improves memory
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25
Q

How is memory stored?

A
  • Amygdala activity regulates encoding + consolidation/storage of memories
  • Activation of amygdala through through affect (e.g. arousal/stress) enhances retention
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26
Q

What is selective attention?

A

Narrowing the scope of attention

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27
Q

What is Arousal-biased competition

A
  • Arousal modulates the strength of competing mental representations, enhancing memory for items that dominate the contest for selective attention
  • Accounts for encoding and consolidation (goal relevant information)
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28
Q

What are the two central consequences of affect?

A
  1. Affect influences the content of thought (what we think)

2. Affect alters cognitive style (how we think)

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29
Q

What are evaluative judgements?

A
  • People asking themselves “How do I feel about this?”
  • They may misread current feelings as response to object of judgement
  • More favourable evaluations under positive rather than negative moods, unless their informational. value is discredited
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30
Q

How does mood affect memory?

A

There is better retrieval when the emotional state at the time of retrieval is the same as the emotional state at the time of encoding

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31
Q

What is the mood congruency effect?

Bower (1981)

A

People retrieve information more easily when it has the same emotional content as their current emotional state

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32
Q

What are the peripheral cues of persuasion?

A
  • Attractiveness
  • Status
  • Sex
  • Likability
  • Number of arguments
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33
Q

What are the central cues of persuasion?

A
  • Message content

- Arguments

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34
Q

How does mood effect cognitive processing?

A

Happy mood. decreases cognitive capacity resulting in a decrease in elaborative processing

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35
Q

How does positive affect change cognitive processing?

A

Positive affect signals that the environment is safe and the person can rely on default processes

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36
Q

How does negative affect change cognitive processing?

A

Negative affect signals that the environment is problematic, default processes are no longer applied

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37
Q

What are the social functions of facial exressions?

A

During interactions:

- Expressions are not only. automatic, innate displays but serve social goals

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38
Q

What is facial mimicry?

A

Use of facial musculature by an observer to match the facial gestures in another person’s facial expression

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39
Q

Facial mimicry study

Dimberg et. al (2000)

A
  • Participants unconsciously exposed to happy, angry or neutral facial expressions (30 ms)
  • Back-masked and immediately followed by neutral faces
  • Facial electromyographic (EMG)

DV: electromyographic activity in emotion-relevant facial muscles

Results: Activation of the same muscles in the observer (500ms delay)

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40
Q

What are the effects of mimicry?

A
  • Increased liking of partners who mimic oneself
  • Signals of being attuned with the other
  • Easier communication
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41
Q

Visual cliff study

Sorce, Emde, Campos and Klinnert (1985)

A
  • Mother calls to child from across the deep side of the visual cliff
  • No infant crossed table when mother showed fear
  • 6% did when mother posed anger
  • 33% crossed when mother posed sadness
  • Approx. 75%crossed when mother posed joy or interest
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42
Q

What are affective predictions of emotions?

A
  • Forecasting of one’s emotional state in the future
  • Accurate in the relative sense but inaccurate in general due to us over-estimating

Intensity of future emotions = IMPACT bias
Duration of future emotions = DURABILITY bias

43
Q

What is affective forecasting bias?

A

Difference between prediction and experience

44
Q

What is focalism?

A

Forecasters focus on the event to the exclusion of others

45
Q

What is misconstrual?

A

Forecasters imagine the event as more powerful than it actually is

46
Q

What is immune neglect.?

A

Forecasters fail to consider their psychological resources

47
Q

What are motivated distortions?

A

Affective forecasts guide people into the future

48
Q

Effort and affective forecasting: Hypothesis 1

A
  • Actions that require more effort are perceived as temporally
  • Temporally closer events induce more intense emotions
  • Effort inflates affective forecast to better cope with the fact that one has invested a lot of energy in that task
49
Q

What is emotion regulation?

Gross, 1998

A

How individuals influence:

  • Which emotions they have
  • When they have them
  • How they experience and express them
  • Process responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions
50
Q

Examples of emotional regulation: Negative emotion decrease

A
  • Trying to calm oneself down when angry (Int)

- Helping a tearful child untangle his kite (Ext)

51
Q

Examples of emotional regulation: Negative emotion increase

A
  • Firing oneself up before a big game (Int)

- Reframing a friend’s “little fight” with a spouse as serious (Ext)

52
Q

Examples of emotional regulation: Positive emotion decrease

A
  • Wiping a smile off one’s face at a funeral (Int)

- Helping giggling girls calm down at bedtime (Ext)

53
Q

Examples of emotional regulation: Positive emotion increase

A
  • Sharing great news with close friends (Int)

- Telling someone a joke to cheer them up (Ext)

54
Q

What is primary appraisal?

A
  1. How relevant (important) is what is happening in this situation to my needs and goals
  2. Is the congruent (good) or incongruent (bad) with my needs and goals?
55
Q

What is secondary appraisal?

A
  1. How responsible am I for what is happening in this situation
  2. How responsible is someone or something else?
  3. Can I act on this situation to make or keep it more like what I want
  4. Can I handle and adjust to this situation however it might turn out?
  5. Do I expect this situation to improve or to get worse?
56
Q

Emotion regulation strategy 1: Facial feedback hypothesis

A
  1. Subtle muscle contractions in the perceiver’s face generate an afferent muscular feedback signal from the face to the brain
  2. The perceiver uses this feedback to reproduce and understand the perceived emotional meaning
57
Q

Emotion regulation strategy 2: Appraisal/Self-distancing

A

In order to deal with the past:
- Perceptions of past selves and how they reflect on our present self

In order to regulate current and future emotions:
- Link present actions to future consequences

58
Q

How do we recollect the past?

A
  • Nostalgia

- Activates thoughts about relevance of that even to the present and mixed feelings

59
Q

What role does recollection of the past have?

A
  • Associate meanings to current events
  • Help you to know yourself better
  • Provides “fuel” for our present selves
60
Q

What is the temporal self-appraisal theory?

Wilson and Ross (2001)

A
  • People are motivated to evaluate their past. selves in a way that makes them feel good about themselves now

e. g. What can I do to feel good about myself now?
- Inflate the way I see myself now or derogate how I was in the past (increase the contrast)

  • People boost their present selves less than they boost their past selves
  • Due to present boosts being confronted with objective standards for evaluation and retrospective boosts (criticism) are more permissive
61
Q

Example of inflating the way you see yourself now (Temporal self-appraisal theory)

A
  • I am such a better lecturer now in 2020

- I am such an interesting person right now

62
Q

Example of derogating how you were in the past (Temporal self-appraisal theory)

A
  • Oh, I was so much more nervous when I started teaching

- I wasn’t very interesting at 18

63
Q

What is subjective distancing?

A

Participants who obtained. a lower mark in a previous course felt farther from the course than those who obtained a better grade

64
Q

What are the consequences of subjective distancing?

A

Those who. felt closer to former failures evaluated their current self less favourably than those who felt distant to former failures

65
Q

How does culture shape how we regulate emotions?

A
  • Shapes general practices of how we regulate our negative emotions
  • Individual factors (e.g. ability to process information, motivation, skills to use opportunities) contribute more proximally to our regulation of negative emotions
66
Q

What is the hot/cool system model of self-regulation?

Metcalfe and Mischel (1999)

A

Stimuli represented as:

  1. Concrete, emotionally arousing, ‘hot’ features
    - Reflexive processing
    - Stimulus is controlled
    - Automatic approach and avoidance behaviours
  2. Abstract, informational, ‘cool’ features
    - Reflective processing
    - More effortful
    - Cognitively driven
    - Inhibits automatic reactions
67
Q

Example of the hot/cool system of self-regulation

A

Argument with mum/dad about 11pm curfew

  1. ‘Hot’ features e.g. angry shouting, who is right, door slamming
    - I feel really bad
    - I don’t ever want to talk about this
    - I can’t look at him/her without getting angry
  2. ‘Cool” features e.g. debating, good arguments on both sides, both get tired and defensive
    - I feel sad that we disagree
    - I’d like him/her to listen more
    - I’m ready to talk more
    - I think we should have taken a break
68
Q

How do ‘hot’ features change the quality of one’s focus on past emotional experiences?

A
  • More self-immersed or egocentric perspective
  • Focus on selective features that are concrete
  • This increases arousal and intensity of negative emotions
  • Makes analysis of what went wrong difficult
69
Q

How do ‘cool’ features change the quality of one’s focus on past emotional experiences?

A
  • Self-distanced or third-person perspective
  • Decreased negative arousal
  • Cognitive analysis of what happened is possible
70
Q

How do we manipulate self-perspective?

A

Recall an experience in which you felt overwhelming ager/hostility etc

Experimenters ask ps to think about that experience:

  1. Self-immersed
    “Go back to the time and place of the experience and relive the situation as if it were happening to you all over again”
  2. Self-distanced
    “Take a few steps back and move away from your experience… watch the conflict unfold as if it were happening all over again to. the distanced you”
71
Q

Main effects of self-distanced emotional perspective

Kross, Ayduk and Mischek (2005)
Ayduk and Kross (2008)
Mischkowski, Kross and Bushman (2012)

A
  • Self distancing x emotional focus reduces implicit and explicit anger
  • Self distancing x emotional focus reduces emotional reactivity
  • Self-distancing reduces blood pressure reactivity
  • Reduces aggressive thoughts, angry feelings, and aggressive behaviour
72
Q

Evidence of neural correlates between MDD and rumination

Berman, Peltier, Nee, Kross, Deldin and Jonides (2010)

A
  • Posterior-cingulate cortex and subgenual-cingulate cortex
  • MDDs have more neural functional connectivity between the 2 regions than healthy individuals during rest
  • More negative or self-referential thoughts
  • Correlated with behavioural measures of rumination and brooding, but not reflection
73
Q

Age or developmental stage as a moderator of self-distancing

Kross, Ayduk, Duckworth, Tsukayama and Mischel (2012)

A

Children who analysed their feelings from a self-distancing perspective:

  • Focused less on ‘hot’ memories
  • Focused more on reconstructing their experience
  • Less blaming others
  • Less emotional reactivity
74
Q

At what level of the process of emotional regulation would you include self-distancing?

A

Reappraisal

75
Q

What is acceptance/attachment

A
  • Regulatory strategy
76
Q

Acceptance/attachment study

Norman, Lawrence, Iles, Benattayallah and Karl (2015)

A
  • 42 healthy ps
  • STAI-Y trait subscale
  • Measure of attachment dimensions
  • Shortly before/during fMRI scanning: SAM (emotions) and attachment items were measured

Attachment-security priming condition: 48 pictures, caregiving and people enjoying close attachment relationships (e.g. hugging loved ones)

Control condition: 48 pictures of household objects

77
Q

Acceptance/attachment study: Threat-reactivity task 1 (dot probe)

Norman, Lawrence, Iles, Benattayallah and Karl (2015)

A
  • Word pair remained onscreen for 500 ms
  • Threat neutral vs neutral neutral pairs
  • Following the offset of each word pair, an asterisk probe replaced one of the two words for up to 2 s
  • Indicate which of the words had been replaced by the probe as quickly and as accurately as possible
78
Q

Acceptance/attachment study: Threat-reactivity task 2 (emotional faces)

Norman, Lawrence, Iles, Benattayallah and Karl (2015)

A
  • Emotional faces task (amygdala activation)
  • Set of three faces presented
  • Task: match one of two faces (bottom of the screen) with the target face (top of the screen) according to a shared facial expression (fearful or angry)
79
Q

Acceptance/attachment study: Results

Norman, Lawrence, Iles, Benattayallah and Karl (2015)

A
  • Between-group differences in the left dorsal amygdala activation in the emotional faces task
  • Control group showed greater activation compared with attachment primed group to emotional faces at the whole brain level
80
Q

Regulatory strategy 4: Solitude

A
  • Being alone des not equal feeling lonely
81
Q

Solitude study

Nguyen, Ryan and Deci (2017)

A

Main DV: deactivation on. people’s affective experiences (decrease of positive and negative high-arousal affect)

Study 1: deactivation when alone, not when with another
Study 2: deactivation did not depend on whether engaged in activity
Study 3: High arousal + affect. did not drop in a solitude condition (Ps engaged in + thinking actively chose what to think about)
Study 4: solitude –> relaxation and reduced stress when Ps actively chose to be alone

82
Q

Definition of positive psychology

Gable and Haldt (2005)

A

Study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions

83
Q

Needs in self-determination theory: Competence

A

A feeling that one can accomplish the behaviours and reach their goal (conceptual overlaps with self-efficacy)

84
Q

Needs in self-determination theory: Autonmy

A

A feeling of choice and responsibility for one’s behaviour

85
Q

Needs in self-determination theory: Relatedness

A

Feeling understood, cared for and valued by significant others

86
Q

What do self-determination needs do for motivation?

A
  • Increase in intrinsic motivation when needs are satisfied

- Decrease in intrinsic motivation when needs are not met

87
Q

What is the need for affect personality trait

A
  • General motivation of people to approach or avoid situations and activities that are emotion inducing for themselves and others
  • Desire to experience and understand the emotions of oneself and others
  • Belief that emotions are useful for shaping judgements and behaviour
  • People would not attempt to experience/understand others’ emotions if they found them uncomfortable
  • They would not approach emotions if they regarded them as unproductive
88
Q

What do positive emotions do?

A
  • Broaden one’s action
    repertoire
  • Prompt the individual to pursue wider range of thoughts and actions than typical
  • Long-term advantage
89
Q

What do negative emotions do?

A
  • Narrow one’s action tendencies
  • Call forth specific actions (flight in fear, attack in anger)
  • Mobilise bodily support for these (increase in blood flow to large muscles)
  • Clear evolutionary advantage
90
Q

What do positive emotions do for you in the long term?

A

Build personal resources

Intellectual:

  • Knowledge
  • Theory of mind
  • Intellectual complexity
  • Executive control

Physical:

  • Health
  • Skills

Psychological:

  • Resilience
  • Creativity
  • Optimism

Social:

  • Friendship
  • Social support
  • Assertiveness
91
Q

What are the two themes of positive emotion in the Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotion?

Fredrickson (1998, 2001)

A
  1. Broaden scope of attention

2. Increase thought-action repertoires

92
Q

What coping strategies does optimism use?

A
  • Problem-focused coping and positive reinterpretation
93
Q

Does only optimism predict better outcomes for an individual?

Keller, Litselman, Wisk, Maddox, Cheng, Creswell and Witt (2012)

A
  • Amount of stress + perception that stress affects health interacted
  • Those who reported a lot of stress and that they perceived it to impact their health had a 43% increased risk of premature death
94
Q

How does defensive pessimism help

Norem and Cantor (1986)
Norem and Chang (2002)

A
  • Show significant increase in self-esteem and satisfaction over time
  • Perform better academically
  • Form more supportive friendship networks
  • Make more progress on goals
95
Q

What are the 4 things that may not make happiness great

Gruber, Mauss and Tamir (2011)

A
  • A wrong degree of happiness
  • A wrong time for happiness
  • Wrong ways to pursue happiness
  • Wrong types of happiness
96
Q

Translation for Kama muta

A

Sanskrit for ‘moved by love’

97
Q

What is flow?

Csikszentmihalyi (1990)

A
  • Intense and focused concentration on what you’re doing in the present moment
  • Merging of action and awareness
  • Loss of yourself as a social actor
  • A sense that you can control your actions (you can deal with the situation)
  • Distortion of temporal experience
  • Experience of activity as intrinsically rewarding (goal is just an excuse)
98
Q

What is equanimity?

A

An even-minded mental state or dispositional tendency toward experiences or objects, regardless of their affective valence or source

99
Q

What is emotional intelligence?

A

Intersection of emotions and cognition and ability to leverage emotions to enhance thinking, judgement, and behaviour

100
Q

What is the history of emotional intelligence?

A
  • Limitations of IQ led to new theories in the 70s

- Led to the Goleman theory of EI

101
Q

Four Branch Model: Branch 1

A
  • Perception of emotion
  • Identify emotions of self
  • Identify emotions of others
102
Q

Four Branch Model: Branch 2

A
  • Use emotion to facilitate thinking

- Differing emotions have a differing impact on a situation

103
Q

Four Branch Model: Branch 3

A
  • Understanding of emotion
  • Where do emotions come from?
  • How do various emotions work together?
104
Q

Four Branch Model: Branch 4

A
  • Management of emotion

- How to feel emotion and display appropriately

Year 2 From Individuals to Society (3 decks)

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