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A-Level Psychology AQA > RM: Experimental and Non-experimental Methods + Validity and Reliability > Flashcards

RM: Experimental and Non-experimental Methods + Validity and Reliability Flashcards

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1
Q

name the different types of experimental method

A

lab experiment
field experiment
natural experiment
quasi experiment

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2
Q

what is typically involved in a lab experiment?

A
  • empirical, observable measurements are made
  • highly controlled setting where the independent variable is manipulated and the dependent variable is measured
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3
Q

what is an extraneous variable

A

a variable other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable, and the results of the study, and their validity

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4
Q

what is a confounding variable?

A

a variable that varies systematically with the IV and influences the supposed cause and effect

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5
Q

how can we overcome confounding variables?

A

randomisation of participants and using standardised techniques

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6
Q

what is an aim?

A

a statement about the purpose of research and why it is being carried out

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7
Q

what is a hypothesis?

A

a clear, testable statement that allows the researcher to predict the outcome of an investigation

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8
Q

what is a directional hypothesis?

A

a statement that predicts the direction of the difference

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9
Q

when do we use a directional hypothesis?

A

when there has been previous research carried out into the topic

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10
Q

what is a non-directional hypothesis

A

a statement that does not predict the outcome of the difference

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11
Q

when do we use a non-directional hypothesis?

A

when there has been no previous research on that topic

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12
Q

what is a null hypothesis?

A

a statement that predicts no direction of the outcome (no significant difference/correlation)

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13
Q

when is a null hypothesis used?

A

a researcher will always write a null hypothesis at the beginning of the study, along with their directional/non directional hypothesis, depending on whether there has been previous research into that area or not.

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14
Q

what is a demand characteristic?

A

cues in an experimental situation that help participants guess the aim of the study. as a result, participants change their behaviour, and are no longer behaving naturally.

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15
Q

how can we overcome demand characteristics?

A

using single and double blind procedures.
single = participants are unaware of the research aims and hypothesis, and do not know which condition they are in
double = both the researcher and the participant are unaware of the condition and the aims/hypothesis.

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16
Q

what are the strengths of lab experiments?

A
  • they are highly controlled, so cause and effect can be established between the independent variable and the dependent variable
  • they use a standardised procedure, which allows the experiment to be easily replicated by others to check the reliability of the findings
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17
Q

what are the weaknesses of lab experiments?

A
  • participants can respond to demand characteristics and so exhibit behaviour that is not typical of their normal behaviour
  • low ecological validity as the environment is highly artificial so findings cannot be generalised to everyday situations.
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18
Q

what are demand characteristics?

A

when participants change their natural behaviour to act in line with their interpretation of the aims of the study

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19
Q

what is validity?

A

whether a measure actually measures what it claims to be measuring

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20
Q

what are the 7 types of validity

A

ecological validity
temporal validity
population validity
concurrent validity
internal validity
face validity
external validity

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21
Q

what is internal validity?

A

the extent to which the results of the experiment are due to manipulation of the independent variable (whether the experiment measured what it was supposed to)

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22
Q

what are the two types of external validity

A

ecological validity and population validity

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23
Q

what is population validity?

A

the extent to which findings can be generalised to wider populations.

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24
Q

what is ecological validity?

A

the extent to which the findings of the study can be generalised to real life. eg. if study was conducted in a lab, this is a very artificial setting that is dissimilar to real life, so study has low ecological validity. or if the study investigated how many shocks a participant would give to a confederate, this is a situation very unlikley to take place in real life, so study has low ecological validity.

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25
Q

what is concurrent validity?

A

the extent to which the results of the study concur with other studies and evidence. (comparing a new test to an already existing test)

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26
Q

what is temporal validity?

A

the extent to which the findings of a study are valid when differences and progressions that come with time are considered

27
Q

what is face validity?

A

the extent to which a study APPEARS to measure what it claims to measure. eg. how logical is the data collection method/independent variable?

28
Q

what is reliability?

A

a measure of whether findings are consistent with studies carried out previously

29
Q

what are confounding variables?

A

a type of extraneous variable that varies systematically with the independent variable and so is difficult to control for

30
Q

what is a field experiment?

A

an experiment that takes place in a natural everyday setting, but the IV is still manipulated and the DV is still measured

31
Q

what are the strengths of a field experiment?

A
  • have a higher ecological validity than lab experiments due to the natural environment - findings are easier to generalise to real life
  • participants are less likely to respond to demand characteristics as they are often unaware they are participating in a field experiment
32
Q

what is a natural experiment?

A
  • an experiment that takes place in a natural setting, but the IV is not manipulated - it already exists (researcher collects data from something that would have happened anyway)
33
Q

what are the strengths of natural experiments?

A
  • have high ecological validity as they take place in natural settings
  • participants are less likely to respond to demand characteristics as they are unaware they are participating in the study
34
Q

what are the weaknesses of natural experiments?

A
  • its not possible to control for or eliminate extraneous variables that may have an impact on the DV - so more difficult to establish cause and effect between the IV and the DV
  • difficult to replicate as there is a lack of control over the extraneous variables
35
Q

what is a quasi experiment?

A

experiments that have an IV based on existing differences between people - the IV is not manipulated, it simply exists

36
Q

what are the strengths of quasi experiments?

A
  • often carried out under controlled conditions and so have the same strengths as lab experiments
  • sometimes carried out in more natural environments and so have the same strengths as field and natural experiments
37
Q

what are the weaknesses of quasi experiements?

A
  • the two groups being tested may differ in more important ways than the difference being measured - other confounding variables may be present
  • if experiment takes place in a lab we can say the participants are prone to demand characteristics
38
Q

what is external validity?
what are the two types of external validity?

A

the extent to which findings can be generalised to the real world
there are two types : ecological validity and population validity

39
Q

what are the 3 different types of non-experimental method?

A

observations
self report methods
correlations

40
Q

what are the different types of observation?

A
  • naturalistic and controlled
  • covert and overt
  • participant and non-participant
41
Q

what is a naturalistic observation?

A

an observation carried out in a natural setting, in the participants own environment, and interference is kept to a minimum

42
Q

what are the strengths of naturalistic observations?

A
  • high ecological validity as it takes place in a natural environment, so findings can be generalised to other real life settings
  • allows researcher to study behaviour that cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical concerns
43
Q

what are the weaknesses of naturalistic observations

A
  • difficult to establish cause and effect because you cannot control for extraneous variables
  • difficult to replicate under the exact same conditions
44
Q

what is a controlled observation?

A

observations that take place in controlled laboratory environments.

45
Q

what is a strength of using controlled observations?

A
  • due to high control over variables and standardised procedure they are very easy to replicate, so easier to check the reliability of the findings
  • also, extraneous variables can be eliminated
46
Q

what are the weaknesses of controlled observations

A
  • higher chance of participants responding to demand characteristics as they are in an artificial environment and they know they are being observed
  • also, due to artificial environment, controlled observations have low ecological validity, so its not possible to generalise findings to real life situations
47
Q

what are covert observations

A

when an observation is done secretly and a participant is being observed without their knowledge

48
Q

what are the strengths of covert observations

A
  • as participant is unaware they are being observed, they will act naturally, so there are no demand characteristics
  • allows researcher to observe behaviour that is done in private
49
Q

what are the weaknesses of covert observations

A
  • ethical issues as there is no informed consent
  • difficult to observe behaviour without being discovered
50
Q

what are overt observations

A

when an observation is done openly and the participant is aware they are being observed

51
Q

what are the strengths of overt observations

A

as the participant knows they are being observed the researcher can find out more information from them after the observation

  • fewer ethical issues than covert observations as participant can give informed consent
52
Q

what is a weakness of overt observations

A
  • as participant knows they are being observed they may respond to observer effects or investigator effects which lead to demand characteristics
53
Q

what is a participant observation

A

when the observer is involved and participates in the behaviour of the group being observed

54
Q

what is a strength of participant observations

A
  • as the observer is fully immersed in the behaviour of the group, they have a fuller understanding of the action of the group being observed
55
Q

what is a weakness of participant observations

A

as the researcher becomes fully immersed in the behaviour of the group, it may be difficult for them to remain objective

56
Q

what are non- participant observations

A

when the researcher follows the group around during the activities but does not engage in them

57
Q

what are the strengths of non-participant observations

A
  • the researcher is not interfering with the behaviour being observed
  • researcher is able to remain objective
58
Q

what are the weaknesses of non-participant observations

A
  • researcher may not fully understand the actions of the group
  • participants may respond to observer/investigator effects
59
Q

how is behaviour recorded during observations?

A

using behavioural categories

  • note taking and udo/video recordings can also be used
60
Q

what does using behavioural categories entail?

A
  • a behaviour checklist, so that every time a behaviour is observed, a tally is put into the appropriate cell on the table.
61
Q

what is a strength and a weakness of using behavioural categories during observations?

A

strengths = the tallies make the data easier to quantify and use in graphs compared to qualitative data.
behavioural categories are also classed as a more scientific and objective way of carrying out observations compared to other methods of observation as it is a standardised technique which makes it easier to replicate and check for reliability

weaknesses = one observers definition of a certain behaviour may be different to another observers definition. this may mean that different results are obtained by two different observers. this is called a lack of inter-observer reliability.

62
Q

what is time sampling and why is it used?

what is a strength/weakness of it?

A
  • when behaviour is observed at different intervals of time, such as one hour observing one hour not observing.
  • this is done because it is not possible to observe every moment of a group/p’s life, so a systematic approach is needed.
  • a weakness of it is that it could miss important behaviours.
  • a strength of it is that it reduces the number of observations that need to be made.
63
Q

what is event sampling and what is a strength of it?

A
  • when the researcher focuses on a specific, pre selected behaviour that they are interested in and records it every time it occurs.
  • a strength of this is that it is useful when an event happens infrequently, so could be missed with time sampling.
64
Q

what are investigator effects and how can they be reduced?

A

when the researcher unintentionally influences the outcome of a study eg. by unintentionally acting in a way to support their prediction.

double blind studies, standardisation, random allocation

A-Level Psychology AQA (9 decks)

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