Psychopathology

Question 1

what are the 4 definitions of abnormality?

Answer 1

• statistical infrequency
• deviation from social norms
• failure to function adequately
• deviation from ideal mental health

Question 2

what is deviation from social norms?

Answer 2

behaviours that are atypical to the accepted standards of behaviour in society

Question 3

what is a strength of the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality?

Answer 3

it is a more appropriate definition compared to ‘statistical infrequency’
this is because whilst deviation from social norms distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour and the effect it has on others, the statistical infrequency definition classes behaviour as normal if it falls out of the ‘range’ for most people. this is a strength as it may be a more appropriate definition of abnormal behaviour

Question 4

what are the weaknesses of the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality

Answer 4

• social norms vary as times change. this is because what is socially acceptable now may not have been socially acceptable 50 years ago. for example, today homosexuality is acceptable but in the past it was deemed a psychological concern by the DSM. this is a weakness as the lack of consistency reduces the validity of this definition
• also, norms differ between cultures (culturally relative). for example, hearing voices is deemed socially deviant in western cultures, but in others it is accepted. this s a problem as the definition should be consistent between cultures, and since it isnt it can be described as ethnocentric
• lastly, it can be criticised for terming people as deviant when they are just trying to express their individuality. for example, just because people dont conform to what is deemed ‘normal’ by society, doesnt mean that they are psychologically abnormal. this is a weakness as this definition can be damaging to certain people in society.

Question 5

what is failure to function adequatley?

Answer 5

behaviour that entails somebody being unable to cope with everyday life or engage in everyday behaviours

Question 6

what is the accronym to remember the 5 features of failure to function adequately proposed by researchers? also define the features

Answer 6

MUSIC
- maladaptive = when someone is stopping themselves from progressing
- unconventional = abnormal behaviour
- suffering = struggling to cope
- irrational = acting in a way that people do not understand
- control (lost) = acting in an unpredictable and inappropriate manner

Question 7

what is a strength of the failure to function adequately definition of abnormaltity?

Answer 7

• it includes the patients perspective. this is because it allows us to view the mental disorder from the point of view of the person experiencing it. for example, the level of distress experienced by a patient is considered when determining whether their behaviour is abnormal or not. this is a strength as the definition provides useful criterion, which allows patients to self assess themselves and their own level of functioning

Question 8

what are the weaknesses of the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?

Answer 8

• abnormality is not always accompanied with disfunction, as people with dangerous personality disorders can still appear normal. for example, harold shipman, a GP that murdered 215 of his patients over a 23 year period seemed to be a respectable doctor. therefore, this is a weakness as using this definition may not be appropriate in all cases.
• also, this definition is limited by cultural relativism. for example, long periods of grief after bereavement are more acceptable in some cultures than others. this means whilst behaviour may be be seen as failure to function in one place, it may be completely normal in another. this is a weakness as the definition is not consistent within cultures.

Question 9

what is statistical infrequency?

Answer 9

when behaviour is classed as abnormal because it falls out of the typical range on a normal distribution curve and is infrequent in the population (two+ standard deviations from the mean)

Question 10

what is a strength of the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?

Answer 10

• its an objective way to define abnormality, as a clear cut off point has been agreed. this makes it easier to decide who meets the criteria to be labelled as abnormal in comparison to other definitions. therefore this definition is seen as less subjective as the other definitions

Question 11

what are the weaknesses of the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?

Answer 11

• the are many abnormal behaviours that are actually desirable. for example, very few people have an IQ above 150, yet it would not be suggested that having an IQ above 150 makes somebody abnormal. this is a weakness as only undesirable behaviours need to be identified, so the definition cannot be used alone when making a diagnosis
• statistical infrequency may also be culturally biased, as there are behaviours that are statistically infrequent in some cultures, but more frequent in others. this is a problem as the definition would class these people as abnormal, despite their behaviour being deemed normal where they are from.

Question 12

what is deviation from ideal mental health as defined by jahoda? what is the accronym for this?

Answer 12

people who lack all the following characteristics for optimal living:
- an accurate perception of reality
- a resistance to stress (being able to cope in stressful situations)
- self attitudes that are positive (such as high self esteem and a strong sense of identity)
- autonomy (functioning independently)
- self actualisation (being focused on the future and fulfilling their potential)
- mastery of environment (ability to adjust to new situations)

Question 13

what is a strength of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality?

Answer 13

it offers an alternative perspective on mental disorders. this is because the definition focuses on the positives rather than the negatives. therefore, jahodas ideas are in accordance with the humanistic approach, which also focus on the positive nature of humanity

Question 14

what are the weaknesses of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality?

Answer 14

• definition is ethnocentric. this is because the ideals of mental health are not applicable to all cultures. for example, the criterion of self-actualisation is relevant to members of individualistic cultures but not collectivist cultures, where individuals strive for the greater good of the community, rather than just themselves. this is a problem as for the definition to be classed as reliable, the same behaviour should be viewed consistently between cultures.
• also, it is unclear how many of the criterion need to be absent before someone can be classed as deviating from ideal mental health. for example, it is unknown whether all 6 need to be lacking in the individual, or whether they could lack only one or two before being classed. this makes way for subjectivity during diagnosis, which may differ between individual psychiatrists, leading to inconsistency. this is a weakness because the lack of objectivity means that this definition is rarely used in the real world

Question 15

what is a phobia?

Answer 15

an irrational fear of an object or situation, that is out of proportion to the phobic stimulus

Question 16

what is a common source used to diagnose mental health problems?

Answer 16

the DSM-5

Question 17

what are the three categories of phobias detailed by the DSM-5

Answer 17

• specific phobias
• social phobias
• agoraphobia

Question 18

what is a specific phobia?

Answer 18

a fear of an object or a situation

Question 19

what is a social phobia?

Answer 19

a fear of a social situation such as public speaking or using a public toilet

Question 20

what is agoraphobia?

Answer 20

a fear of leaving the house or a safe place. can be characterised by having a fear of being outside or in a public place

Question 21

what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias? describe them

Answer 21

panic = can be in the form of crying, screaming or freezing
avoidance = as anxiety increases when being close to the feared situation, the situation is avoided
disruption of functioning = when anxiety and avoidance responses are so extreme that they interfere with the ability to conduct everyday functioning

Question 22

what are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

Answer 22

anxiety = long term
fear = unreasonable

Question 23

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

Answer 23

irrational beliefs = hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimuli, and are very resistant to rational arguments

selective attention = sufferers will look intently at the phobic stimuli and find it very hard to look away from it

Question 24

what is the behavioural approach?

Answer 24

a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

Question 25

what is classical conditioning?

Answer 25

when we learn by association. occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly placed together at the same time (the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus), and the neutral stimulus alone eventually produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus did, thus becoming the conditioned stimulus.

Question 26

what is operant conditioning?

Answer 26

a form of learning through reinforcement. maintaining a behaviour because of rewards or in order to avoid a negative outcome.

Question 27

what does the two process model believe?

describe the two process model.

Answer 27

according to the two process model, phobias are acquired through classical conditioning, and maintained because of operant conditioning

classical conditioning: the sufferer learns to associate a neutral stimulus (such as a dog) with a negative outcome, the unconditioned response (eg after watching someone get bitten by a dog). so the dog becomes a conditioned stimulus and induces the unconditioned response of fear.

operant conditioning: with negative reinforcement. the individual avoids the phobic stimulus (the dog) and by avoiding it, they escape the fear and anxiety they would have suffered if they hadnt. this reduction of fear is what maintains the phobia

Question 28

what are the strengths of the behavioural two process model to explaining phobias?

Answer 28

• a strength is that it can be tested in an objective way. for example, one researcher tested the model by pairing a buzzer sound with an electric shock with rats. through the use of negative reinforcement, rats were trained to escape the shock by jumping over a barrier when the buzzer sounded. this is a strength as it increases the scientific validity of the behaviourist explanation for phobias.
• has practical applications. for example, there are several behavioural therapies that use the principles of conditioning to successfully treat phobias, such as systematic desensitisation, which uses classical conditioning to unlearn the previously learnt phobias. evidence comes from a researcher that found 75% of phobic patients showed an improvement in their symptoms after treatment. the success of these treatments strengthens the validity of the behaviourist explanation for phobias

Question 29

what are the weaknesses of the behaviourist two process model for explaining phobias?

Answer 29

• it has been argued that this explanation is incomplete as it fails to explain the role evolution plays in many peoples fears. for example, researchers have found that we are innately predisposed to fear things such as snakes and sharks, even though we may have never experienced or encountered these phobic stimuli. therefore, the two process model may be too simplistic, and there may be more to acquiring a phobia than simply conditioning.
• explanation has also been criticised as it fails to explain the cognitive aspects of a phobia. for example, irrational thoughts themselves can create extreme anxiety and may trigger a phobia. this is a weakness of the behavioural explanation as it doesnt explain a vital component of phobias.

Question 30

what are the two behavioural methods to treating phobias?

Answer 30

• systematic desensitisation
• flooding

Question 31

what is systematic desensitisation?

Answer 31

a behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principles of classical conditioning. a new response to the phobic stimulus is learnt by pairing it with relaxation in a process called counterconditioning

Question 32

what are the three processes involved in systematic desensitisation?

Answer 32

• anxiety hierarchy
• relaxation
• exposure

Question 33

what is an anxiety hierarchy?

Answer 33

when the phobic patient works with a therapist to create a list of situations related to the phobic stimulus, starting with the least fearful situation t the bottom, and the most fearful at the top.

Question 34

what does the relaxation component of systematic desensitisation entail?

Answer 34

it is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, as one emotion would prevent the other. this is called reciprocal inhibition. therefore, teaching relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing, mindfulness and visualisation are key parts of systematic desensitisation .

Question 35

what does the exposure component of systematic desensitisation entail?

Answer 35

when the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus whilst in a relaxed state. the patient will start at the bottom of the anxiety hierarchy, and when they can maintain relaxation at that level, they move onto the next level.

exposure can be done in two ways:
- in vitro = the client imagines the exposure to the phobic stimulus (doesnt actually experience it)
- in vivo = when the client is actually exposed to the phobic stimulus

Question 36

what are the strengths of systematic desensitisation as a behaviourist method of treating phobias?

Answer 36

• it has been proven to be effective. for example, one researcher found that 75% of his patients showed an improvement in their symptoms after systematic desensitisation. this is a strength as it shows the treatment can be used to treat many sufferers.
• another strength is that sufferers tend to prefer it to the alternative behavioural therapy of ‘flooding’. this is largely because it does not cause the same degree of trauma as flooding does, which is supported by the fact that SD has lower attrition rates, which means less people drop out of the treatment. this is a strength because it means SD is able to treat a higher number of patients than flooding.
• another strength is that it has economic benefits. this is because it is very cost effective for most phobias and is therefore cheaper to deliver to sufferers compared to other therapies. it is estimated that mental health issues cost the English economy £22.5 billon a year. thus, this treatment is a strength as it means cost effective therapies can have a more widespread impact on peoples lives

Question 37

what is a weakness of the behavioural treatment of systematic desensitisation as a treatment of phobias?

Answer 37

it is not an effective treatment for all phobias. for example, researchers suggest that SD may not be effective in treating phobias that have an evolutionary component, such as a fear of heights or dangerous animals. this reduces the usefulness of the treatment.

Question 38

what is flooding?

Answer 38

when phobic patients are immediately exposed to their phobic stimulus without the gradual progression seen in systematic desensitisation.

Question 39

what is a strength of the behaviourist treatment of flooding as a treatment for phobias?

Answer 39

it is a cost effective treatment of phobias. research has shown that this treatment is just as cost effective as systematic desensitisation, however it is significantly quicker. this is a strength as patients can be free of their symptoms as soon as possible, making the treatment quicker than systematic desensitisation.

Question 40

what are the weaknesses of the behaviourist treatment of flooding as a treatment of phobias?

Answer 40

• one weakness is that it is a highly traumatic experience for patients. the problem is not that it is unethical, as patients give their consent prior to the treatment, but that it has a very high attrition rate, which means that many patients are often unwilling to see it through to the end. this is a weakness of flooding because time and money are sometimes wasted preparing patients only to have them refuse to start or complete the treatment.
• another weakness is that whilst flooding may be effective for specific phobias, it is less effective for other types of phobias such as social phobias and agoraphobia. this is because behavioural treatments are unable to treat the irrational thinking that is often associated with these more complex phobias. this suggests that other types of treatment, such as CBT may be more effective to treating all types of phobias. this is a weakness as it suggests flooding is restricted in its usefulness to just specific phobias