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Neuroscience > Revision (Level 4) > Flashcards

Revision (Level 4) Flashcards

1
Q

What is neuroscience?

A

The field of science that studies the structure & function of the nervous system.

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2
Q

Which 2 subjects merge into 1 to form neuroscience?

A

Biology & psychology

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3
Q

At which levels can human behaviour be studied?

A

At the behavioural, organ, neural system, circuit, cellular, synaptic, and molecular levels.

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4
Q

What are examples of cells that can be used to study human behaviour?

A

Neurones and glia

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5
Q

How can cells contribute to our understanding of human behaviour?

A

Some of them are the building blocks of the CNS & others have specialised functions.

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6
Q

What is an example of a circuit that can be used to study human behaviour?

A

The myotatic spinal reflex (aka the ‘knee jerk’ reaction)

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7
Q

How can circuits contribute to our understanding of human behaviour?

A

Some of them can enable specific cell-to-cell communication

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8
Q

What are examples of systems that can be used to study human behaviour?

A

The motor, sensory & associational systems.

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9
Q

How can systems contribute to our understanding of human behaviour?

A

Some of them can tell us about the general state of an organism, as well as enable perception, movement & ‘higher order’ functioning.

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10
Q

What does our nervous system consist of?

A

Neurones (cells responsible for transmitting & receiving electrochemical information)

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11
Q

What do dendrites receive from other cells?

A

Messages

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12
Q

What do axons pass from the cell body to other neurones, muscles, or glands?

A

Messages

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13
Q

What is a neural impulse?

A

An action potential (an electrical signal travelling down the axon)

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14
Q

What is a cell’s life-support centre?

A

The cell body

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15
Q

What does myelin sheath cover?

A

The axons of some neurones

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16
Q

What does myelin sheath help speed up?

A

Neural impulses

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17
Q

What do the terminal branches of neurones form junctions with?

A

Other cells

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18
Q

What types of neurones are there?

A

Sensory, motor & interneurones

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19
Q

Which neurones carry incoming information from sense receptors to the CNS?

A

Sensory neurones

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20
Q

Which neurones carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles & glands?

A

Motor neurones

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21
Q

Which neurones connect sensory & motor neurones?

A

Interneurones

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22
Q

What form circuits?

A

Interconnected neurones

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23
Q

Are circuits made up of interconnected neurones complex or simple?

A

Complex

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24
Q

How do circuits made up of interconnected neurones modify?

A

With growth and experience

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25
Q

What do complex neural networks look like?

A

They look like many cell bodies connected by axons, sending information to each other.

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26
Q

In the withdrawal reflex, what detect a painful stimulus?

A

Dendrites of the sensory neurone

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27
Q

In the withdrawal reflex, what does pain sensation travel down?

A

The axon of a sensory neurone.

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28
Q

What can happen to muscles in the withdrawal reflex?

A

They cause withdrawal from the source of the pain.

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29
Q

With what type of neurone does a sensory neurone synapse in the withdrawal reflex?

A

An interneurone in the spinal cord

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30
Q

In the withdrawal reflex, what type of neurone excites a motor neurone, causing muscular contraction?

A

An interneurone in the spinal cord

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31
Q

What causes the withdrawal of muscles from the source of pain in the withdrawal reflex?

A

A motor neurone in the spinal cord

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32
Q

What does the brain connect to?

A

The spinal cord

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33
Q

What type of neurones can inhibit motor neurones in the withdrawal reflex, preventing muscular contraction?

A

Interneurones from the brain

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34
Q

What extend from neurones in the brain through the spinal cord?

A

Axons of neurones

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35
Q

What does a cross-section of a spinal cord look like?

A

It looks like a butterfly shape inside of a lobed spherical structure.

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36
Q

What are the 2 parts of the nervous system?

A

The central & peripheral nervous system

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37
Q

What does the central nervous system consist of?

A

The brain & spinal cord

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38
Q

What are the 2 parts of the peripheral nervous system?

A

The autonomic & somatic nervous system

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39
Q

With what does the autonomic nervous system communicate?

A

Internal organs & glands

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40
Q

With what does the somatic nervous system communicate?

A

Sense organs & voluntary muscles

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41
Q

What are the 2 parts of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The sympathetic (arousing) & parasympathetic (calming) division

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42
Q

What are the 2 components of the somatic nervous system?

A

The sensory (afferent) & motor (efferent) nervous systems

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43
Q

What is the sensory nervous system responsible for?

A

Sensory input

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44
Q

What is the motor nervous system responsible for?

A

Motor input

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45
Q

In which part of the body is the central nervous system located?

A

In the upper & middle parts.

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46
Q

In which part of the body is the peripheral nervous system located?

A

In the upper, middle & lower parts of the body.

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47
Q

What can the naked eye distinguish?

A

Grey & white parts in the brain & spinal cord.

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48
Q

What is grey matter made up of?

A

The cell bodies of neurones.

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49
Q

What is white matter made up of?

A

The axons of neurones

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50
Q

Is the ‘butterfly-shaped’ part of the spinal cord made up of grey or white matter?

A

Grey matter

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51
Q

Is the ‘shell-shaped’ part of the spinal cord made up of grey or white matter?

A

White matter

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52
Q

What is the diameter of the spinal cord?

A

1 - 1.5 cm

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53
Q

What does the term ‘medial’ refer to?

A

Moving inward from the outer body area towards the spinal cord.

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54
Q

What does the term ‘lateral’ refer to?

A

Moving outward from the spinal cord towards the outer body area.

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55
Q

Towards where is the term ‘dorsal’ (superior/ posterior) referring?

A

Either the top of the brain or the back of the spine.

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56
Q

Towards where is the term ‘anterior’ (rostral) referring?

A

Either the front of the brain or the top of the spinal cord.

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57
Q

Towards where is the term ‘posterior’ (caudal) referring?

A

Either the back of the brain or the bottom of the spine.

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58
Q

Towards where is the term ‘ventral’ (inferior/ anterior) referring?

A

Either the bottom of the brain or the front of the spinal cord.

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59
Q

In which direction do the brain coordinates rotate as we move down the spinal cord?

A

Backwards

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60
Q

From a sideways (lateral) perspective, what is the largest visible sulcus in the brain?

A

The lateral sulcus

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61
Q

What part of the face & head would you cut to produce a horizontal plane?

A

Horizontally in between the eyes and nose.

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62
Q

What part of the face & head would you cut to produce a coronal (frontal) plane?

A

Vertically through each temple

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63
Q

What part of the face & head would you cut to produce a mid-sagittal (medial) plane?

A

Vertically through the middle of the face.

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64
Q

What are the 3 section planes?

A

The horizontal, coronal & sagittal planes.

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65
Q

What is the cervical spine?

A

The first 7 stacked vertebral bones of your spine

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66
Q

What is the forebrain?

A

The anterior part of the brain.

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67
Q

How could you describe what the medial view of the left hemisphere of the brain looks like?

A

It is the inside of one hemisphere of the brain and contains an unfinished loop-like structure and a (severed) tube at the bottom.

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68
Q

What does the thalamus serve as?

A

The brain’s main relay station.

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69
Q

What does the thalamus look like?

A

It sits under the unfinished loop-like structure in the brain and consists of a small sphere inside of a sperm-shaped structure.

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70
Q

What is the main function of the pineal body?

A

To receive information about the state of the light-dark cycle from the environment & convey this information by the production & secretion of the hormone melatonin.

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71
Q

What does the pineal body look like?

A

A small, round appendage attached to the unfinished loop-like structure.

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72
Q

What is the main function of the cerebellum?

A

Maintaining balance & posture

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73
Q

What does the medulla do?

A

It manages the heart, circulation & breathing.

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74
Q

What does the pons do?

A

It handles unconscious processes such as the sleep-wake cycle & breathing.

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75
Q

What does the tectum do?

A

It receives visual information in a spatially-arranged retinotopic map.

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76
Q

What does the tegmentum do?

A

It relays inhibitory signals to the thalamus & basal nuclei preventing unwanted body movement.

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77
Q

What does the tectum look like?

A

2 little hills just behind the tegmentum.

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78
Q

What does the tegmentum look like?

A

A cube-like structure just in front of the tectum.

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79
Q

What does the hypothalamus do?

A

It produces hormones that control body temperature, heart rate & hunger.

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80
Q

What does the hypothalamus look like?

A

A cube-like space underneath the thalamus.

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81
Q

Which 2 structures make up the midbrain?

A

The tegmentum & the tectum.

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82
Q

What is the brain?

A

The command centre of the human body

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83
Q

How much does the brain weigh?

A

3 pounds

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84
Q

What is an example of what the brain can do?

A

Store memories

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85
Q

How many neurones does the brain contain?

A

Around 86 billion

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86
Q

What are neurones?

A

Specialised cells that can communicate with each other using chemical & electrical signals.

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87
Q

How do groups of neurones link together to form neural circuits?

A

Via long connections called axons

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88
Q

What are organised differently in discrete brain regions that carry out different tasks?

A

Neural circuits

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89
Q

What interconnect to coordinate actions like guiding motor skills using visual information?

A

Different regions of the brain

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90
Q

What are glia?

A

Support cells which provide & maintain the optimal environment for the growth & interaction of neurones.

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91
Q

During neurotransmission, when does an action potential (AP) occur?

A

If the depolarisation of a cell membrane exceeds a particular threshold.

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92
Q

Are APs sudden & brief or long-lasting during neurotransmission?

A

Sudden & brief

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93
Q

How long do APs last during neurotransmission?

A

0.5 - 2 ms

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94
Q

What do APs momentarily reverse during neurotransmission?

A

Cell membrane potential

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95
Q

What quickly repolarises before overshooting during neurotransmission?

A

Cell membrane potential

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96
Q

Is the magnitude of an AP fixed or flexible during neurotransmission?

A

It’s fixed

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97
Q

What kind of response is an AP?

A

An all-or-nothing response

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98
Q

What governs the flux of Na+ & K+ ions into & out of cells during neurotransmission?

A

A complex cascade of opening & closing of voltage-gated ion channels.

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99
Q

In the process of an AP, do Na+ ion channels open before or after K+ channels?

A

Before

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100
Q

In the process of an AP, do Na+ ions flow into/ out of a cell?

A

Into the cell

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101
Q

In the process of an AP, do K+ ions flow into/ out of a cell?

A

Out of the cell

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102
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP are Na+ ion gates open during neurotransmission?

A

During stages 1 & 4

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103
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP are K+ ion gates open during neurotransmission?

A

During stages 2 & 4

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104
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP are K+ ion gates closed during neurotransmission?

A

During stage 5

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105
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP are Na+ ion gates closed during neurotransmission?

A

During stage 3

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106
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP is the inside of the cell more negative than the outside of the cell during neurotransmission?

A

During stages 1, 2, half of 4, and 5.

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107
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP is the inside of the cell more positive than the outside of the cell during neurotransmission?

A

During stage 3 & half of stage 4

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108
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP does Na+ enter a cell during neurotransmission?

A

During stages 1 & 5

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109
Q

During which of the 5 stages of an AP does K+ leave a cell during neurotransmission?

A

During stages 2 & 4

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110
Q

Which of the 5 stages of an AP is the refractory stage?

A

Stage 3

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111
Q

Which of the 5 stages of an AP is the reset stage?

A

Stage 5

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112
Q

Which of the 5 stages of an AP are the open stages?

A

Stages 1, 2 & 4

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113
Q

What is resting membrane potential?

A

-70 mV

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114
Q

Which channels become refractory in stage 3 of an AP during neurotransmission?

A

Na+ channels

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115
Q

What can no longer enter a cell in stage 3 of an AP during neurotransmission?

A

Na+

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116
Q

In an AP, what causes membrane potential to return to its resting level?

A

K+ leaving the cell

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117
Q

What diffuses away during stage 6 of an AP during neurotransmission?

A

Extra K+

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118
Q

What is the withdrawal reflex?

A

A neural circuit

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119
Q

What can be used to alter the potential of a membrane during neurotransmission?

A

An electrical stimulator

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120
Q

What can depolarise a membrane’s potential during neurotransmission?

A

Positive current

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121
Q

Do weak changes in the potential of a membrane during neurotransmission affect it or does this not do much?

A

It doesn’t do much

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122
Q

When is an action potential created?

A

When the potential of a membrane reaches the threshold of excitation.

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123
Q

What is an action potential?

A

A very rapid reversal of a membrane’s potential

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124
Q

Which law applies to action potentials?

A

The all-or-none law

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125
Q

What does the all-or-none law claim?

A

That action potentials either fire or don’t fire.

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126
Q

When is an action potential not affected by the size of a stimulus during neurotransmission?

A

When a membrane’s potential is above a certain threshold.

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127
Q

When a membrane’s potential is above a certain threshold during neurotransmission, how is stimulus intensity coded?

A

By the frequency of action potentials.

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128
Q

What do action potentials caused by a weak stimulus look like before & after the stimulus is present?

A

Vertical lines that occur infrequently along a main horizontal line.

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129
Q

What do action potentials caused by a weak stimulus look like while the stimulus is present?

A

Vertical lines that occur relatively frequently along a main horizontal line.

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130
Q

What do action potentials caused by a strong stimulus look like before & after the stimulus is present?

A

Vertical lines that occur infrequently along a main horizontal line.

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131
Q

What do action potentials caused by a strong stimulus look like while the stimulus is present?

A

Vertical lines that occur extremely frequently along a main horizontal line.

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132
Q

What can cause failed initiations of action potentials?

A

A stimulus

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133
Q

At what voltage is a membrane at its resting state?

A

-70 mV

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134
Q

What happens when a membrane’s potential exceeds -55 mV during neurotransmission?

A

The membrane depolarises & an action potential begins to occur.

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135
Q

What exists at a membrane potential of -55 mV?

A

A threshold

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136
Q

What enter cells during membranal depolarisation?

A

Na+ ions

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137
Q

What happens when a membrane’s potential reaches +40 mV during neurotransmission?

A

The membrane begins to repolarise

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138
Q

What happens after a membrane has been repolarised during neurotransmission?

A

It becomes hyperpolarised.

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139
Q

What leave cells during membranal repolarisation?

A

K+ ions

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140
Q

What happens after a cell membrane has been hyperpolarised?

A

It returns to its resting state.

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141
Q

What happens after an action potential has taken place?

A

There is a refractory period.

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142
Q

Are neuronal cell membranes permeable, impermeable, or semi-permeable?

A

Semi-permeable

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143
Q

What are neurones?

A

Information-processing devices

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144
Q

What happens during electrical neurotransmission?

A

Following sufficient stimulation of a neurone, an action potential is generated at the origin of the axon.

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145
Q

What happens during chemical neurotransmission?

A

When an action potential reaches an axon terminal, it stimulates the release of chemical neurotransmitters.

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146
Q

What are the 2 forms of neural communication?

A

Electrical neurotransmission & chemical neurotransmission.

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147
Q

What are synapses?

A

Gaps between neurones where signals are passed from 1 to the other during neural communication.

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148
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

Very small gaps (2-4 nm) between 2 neurones that occur in electrical synapses.

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149
Q

Which membranes have large channels that allow ions to move directly from 1 cell to the other in electrical synapses?

A

Those facing each other.

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150
Q

What is similar to action potential conduction along the axon?

A

How information is transmitted from 1 neurone to the other in electrical synapses.

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151
Q

Is neural communication across electrical synapses very fast or very slow?

A

Very fast (there’s no time delay)

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152
Q

What are rare in the human CNS?

A

Electrical synapses

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153
Q

What is the mechanism of neural communication in the CNS?

A

Chemical synapses

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154
Q

What are chemical synapses?

A

Structures specialised for the transmission of chemical signals from 1 neurone (presynaptic neurone) to another (postsynaptic neurone)

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155
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A

The gap between the axon of 1 neurone & the dendrite of the next one in chemical synapses.

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156
Q

How big is the synaptic cleft?

A

It’s small (20-40 nm)

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157
Q

How many chemical synapses does each neurone typically have?

A

Many (typically ca 1000)

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158
Q

Is neural communication via chemical synapses fast or slow?

A

Slow (ca 1 ms)

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159
Q

What do neuronal dendrites look like?

A

Squiggly, tree-like appendages.

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160
Q

What do neuronal cell bodies look like?

A

They’re spherical with rugged edges & a sphere in the middle.

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161
Q

What do neuronal axons look like?

A

Long, thin, cylindrical structures.

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162
Q

What do the terminal branches of neuronal axons look like?

A

Frog-foot looking, including spherical structures with blobs at the end.

163
Q

What does neuronal myelin sheath look like?

A

Sausage-shaped, long, cylindrical structures.

164
Q

What does a complex neural network look like?

A

A grid of star-shaped structures with spheres in their centres, joined by long structures.

165
Q

What does the brain look like?

A

It’s light pink with big wrinkles all over.

166
Q

What does the POS look like?

A

A long, squiggly line across the back of the brain.

167
Q

What does the PON look like?

A

A horizontal line across the back of the brain.

168
Q

What does the posterior part of the brain look like?

A

A squiggly, fat, tri-layered structure.

169
Q

What does the anterior part of the brain look like?

A

A lobed structure consisting of fat squiggles.

170
Q

What does the superior part of the brain look like?

A

A thin layer consisting of fat squiggles.

171
Q

What do microtubules look like?

A

Very thin, long cylindrical structures.

172
Q

What does a presynaptic neurone look like?

A

A frog foot, with a tube connected to a blob.

173
Q

What does cytoplasm look like?

A

An orange-pink-coloured blank space filling up a hollow area.

174
Q

What does a mitochondrion look like?

A

A bean-shaped structure with squiggly lines & cytoplasm inside

175
Q

What does the gap junction in an electrical synapse look like?

A

Lines running vertically across 2 adjacent horizontal lines.

176
Q

What connects the presynaptic neurone & the postsynaptic neurone in an electrical synapse in order for neurones to communicate?

A

A gap junction

177
Q

What do postsynaptic neurones look like?

A

A solid-looking structure with an indent to accommodate the presynaptic neurone & bits flowing off to either side.

178
Q

What does the presynaptic membrane of an electrical synapse look like?

A

2 lines with blue space in between.

179
Q

What does a gap junction channel look like?

A

2 adjacent, pink structures with hollow centres.

180
Q

What does the postsynaptic membrane of an electrical synapse involved in neural communication look like?

A

2 lines with blue space in between.

181
Q

What do synaptic vesicles involved in neural communication look like?

A

White circles surrounded by a membrane & filled with small dots.

182
Q

Do synaptic vesicles involved in neural communication exist in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Chemical synapses

183
Q

Do gap junctions involved in neural communication exist in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Electrical synapses

184
Q

Do microtubules exist in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Both

185
Q

Does cytoplasm exist in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Both

186
Q

Do mitochondria exist in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Both

187
Q

Are the presynaptic neurones involved in neural communication existent in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Both

188
Q

Are the postsynaptic neurones involved in neural communication existent in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Both

189
Q

Is postsynaptic membrane existent in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Both

190
Q

Is presynaptic membrane existent in electrical synapses, chemical synapses, or both?

A

Both

191
Q

What fuse with postsynaptic membrane in chemical synapses?

A

Synaptic vesicles

192
Q

What does the presynaptic membrane of a chemical synapse look like?

A

2 lines with blue space in between, forming semi-spherical shapes when vesicles fuse with them.

193
Q

What does the synaptic cleft of a chemical synapse look like?

A

Blue space with membrane above & below it & differently coloured dots inside it.

194
Q

Where is the synaptic cleft of a chemical synapse positioned?

A

In between the presynaptic & postsynaptic membranes.

195
Q

What do the postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptors involved in chemical synapses look like?

A

Yellow bars attached to each other that open when in contact with neurotransmitters.

196
Q

What happens when an action potential reaches a presynaptic neurone of a chemical synapse?

A

Vesicles filled with neurotransmitters move towards the axon terminal.

197
Q

What do the neurotransmitters involved in neural communication look like?

A

Small, spherical, shiny structures.

198
Q

What happens after vesicles fuse with the cell membrane of a presynaptic neurone?

A

Its contents (neurotransmitters) are released into the synaptic cleft.

199
Q

What do neurotransmitters bind with in chemical synapses?

A

Receptors

200
Q

What happens after neurotransmitters have bound with receptors in chemical synapses?

A

Certain ion channels open/ close, producing a localised change in membrane potential.

201
Q

What are neurotransmitters synthesised from?

A

Precursors under the influence of enzymes.

202
Q

What do neurotransmitters being synthesised look like?

A

4 parts of a sphere joining together.

203
Q

What are neurotransmitters stored in during neural communication?

A

Vesicles

204
Q

What do synthesising enzymes look like?

A

Red, thin spirals

205
Q

What do neurotransmitter precursors look like?

A

4 separate parts of a sphere.

206
Q

What destroy neurotransmitters that have leaked from their vesicles?

A

Degrading enzymes

207
Q

What do degrading enzymes look like?

A

Red, thin zig-zags

208
Q

What does the destruction of neurotransmitters look like?

A

A yellow ring with spheres inside & zigzags around the outside.

209
Q

What causes vesicles to fuse with a synapse & release neurotransmitters?

A

An action potential

210
Q

What do autoreceptors involved in neural communication look like?

A

Green, solid structures with spherical indents inside.

211
Q

How many neurotransmitters released by vesicles bind with autoreceptors, inhibiting subsequent neurotransmitter release?

A

Some

212
Q

What does a neurotransmitter-autoreceptor bond look like?

A

A green, solid structure with a spherical indent inside, filled by a sphere.

213
Q

Once some neurotransmitters have bound with autoreceptors, what happens to the rest?

A

They bind to synaptic receptors.

214
Q

What does a neurotransmitter-synaptic receptor bond look like?

A

A sphere in between 2 linear, purple structures.

215
Q

How are released neurotransmitters deactivated?

A

Either by reuptake or enzyme degradation.

216
Q

What does point-to-point neural communication restrict?

A

Synaptic communication

217
Q

How does hormonal communication take place?

A

By the secretion of chemicals into the bloodstream so they can reach & affect the entire body.

218
Q

What do the interconnected neurones of the ANS do?

A

They simultaneously control responses in many organs.

219
Q

How do diffuse modulatory systems work?

A

They involve specific neurotransmitters & can regulate arousal, mood, motivation, sexual behaviour, emotion, sleep, and more.

220
Q

Which systems of neural communication have a widespread influence?

A

The hormonal system, the system of interconnected neurones of the ANS, & diffuse modulatory systems.

221
Q

What does the hormonal system of neural communication look like?

A

A system of pink tubes with black dots inside, all moving in the same direction.

222
Q

What do interconnected neurones involved in the ANS look like?

A

Yellow balls connected by linear structures with cone-like structures at the end of each.

223
Q

What do diffuse modulatory systems look like?

A

1 yellow ball connected by linear structures to many yellow balls.

224
Q

What does a neurone (nerve cell) look like?

A

A spherical structure with a small sphere in its centre, with branches protruding from it.

225
Q

What does an action potential look like?

A

A small, red zigzag.

226
Q

What may target cells retrieving neurotransmitters look like?

A

Edged, blob-like structures with a sphere in their centres.

227
Q

What type of cells may retrieve neurotransmitters from neurones?

A

Target cells

228
Q

What does an endocrine cell look like?

A

An edged, blob-like structure with a sphere in its centre.

229
Q

What are released from endocrine cells into blood vessels?

A

Hormone molecules

230
Q

What do hormone molecules look like?

A

Small, red spheres.

231
Q

What does a hormone-receptor molecule look like?

A

A rigid, pink structure with an indent in it.

232
Q

What move from blood vessels to hormone receptor molecules?

A

Hormones

233
Q

How does neuronal communication take place?

A

An action potential occurs inside of a neurone, & causes neurotransmitters to be released, then associated with neurotransmitter receptor molecules on a target cell.

234
Q

How does hormonal communication take place?

A

Hormones are released from endocrine cells into blood vessels, where they’re transported, then released to associate with hormone receptor molecules on target cells.

235
Q

Which neuroscientific technique has a low spatial resolution?

A

EEGs

236
Q

What do electroencephalogram (EEG) signals reflect the activity of?

A

Populations of neurones

237
Q

Which neuroscientific technique requires magnetic fields?

A

fMRIs

238
Q

What are sensory systems?

A

Parts of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information

239
Q

What does a sensory system consist of?

A

Sensory receptors, neural pathways & the sensory areas of the brain.

240
Q

What is an example of a tactile receptor?

A

A Pacinian corpuscle

241
Q

What does a Pacinian corpuscle look like?

A

A fingerprint-like structure, with a root-like structure protruding from it & 2 white lines in its centre.

242
Q

What is an example of a neural pathway?

A

The somatosensory pathway

243
Q

What does the somatosensory pathway look like?

A

A system of blue, curved, interconnected lines

244
Q

What does a cross-section of the medulla oblongata look like?

A

An immature butterfly shape with 4 petal shapes towards its rear & an ovular shape towards its front.

245
Q

What does the coronal plane of a brain look like?

A

2 broccoli-shaped lobes interconnected, with a butterfly shape in its centre & a thick border.

246
Q

What does the primary somatosensory cortex look like?

A

A thick, broccoli-shaped border.

247
Q

What does a third-order neurone look like?

A

A blue, thin line.

248
Q

What connects the thalamus & the primary somatosensory cortex?

A

A third-order neurone

249
Q

What do dorsal column nuclei look like?

A

Dark brown, petal-shaped structures located in the medulla oblongata.

250
Q

What do dorsal column nuclei look like?

A

Dark brown, petal-shaped structures located in the medulla oblongata.

251
Q

What does a second-order neurone look like?

A

A long, blue, thin line.

252
Q

What does the decussation of the medial lemniscus look like?

A

A small, ovular structure located in the medulla oblongata.

253
Q

Where do second-order neurones run through?

A

The dorsal column nuclei & decussation of the medial lemniscus

254
Q

What do dorsal columns look like?

A

2 indented, ‘butt-like’ appendages of the spinal cord & medulla oblongata.

255
Q

What type of neurones make up the dorsal root ganglion?

A

First-order neurones

256
Q

What do second-order neurones connect to in the somatosensory system?

A

First- & third-order neurones

257
Q

Where are dorsal columns located?

A

In the spinal cord

258
Q

What type of neurones are first-order neurones?

A

Afferent

259
Q

What type of receptor is a Meissner’s corpuscle?

A

A mechanoreceptor

260
Q

What do Meissner’s corpuscles look like?

A

They are ovoid with 3-dimensional squiggles & a hollow space inside.

261
Q

What type of receptor is a muscle spindle?

A

A proprioceptor

262
Q

What do muscle spindles look like?

A

4 tubes laying alongside each other in a circular arrangement.

263
Q

What do first-order neurones connect to in the somatosensory system?

A

Either mechanoreceptors/ proprioceptors

264
Q

What are 2 examples of the sensory areas of the brain?

A

The primary & secondary cortexes

265
Q

What does the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) look like?

A

A thick squiggle on each side of the brain.

266
Q

What does the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) look like?

A

A round patch on each side of the brain

267
Q

What does the secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) look like?

A

A circular patch in the centre of the side of the brain.

268
Q

What does the central sulcus look like?

A

A squiggly line running down part of each side of the brain.

269
Q

What contains the SI?

A

The postcentral gyrus

270
Q

What does the postcentral gyrus look like?

A

A thick squiggle down the centre of the brain.

271
Q

What is an example of sensory encoding?

A

Sensory transduction

272
Q

What does sensory processing start with during sensory encoding?

A

Receptor cells

273
Q

What are receptor cells specialised for?

A

Detecting particular energies/ chemicals.

274
Q

When do receptor cells convert detected energy into a change in membranal electrical potentials?

A

When they’re exposed to a stimulus

275
Q

What is sensory transduction?

A

The conversion of sensory signals into electrical signals via the depolarisation of sensory neuronal membranes upon the stimulus of a receptor.

276
Q

What happens after a signal has been detected during sensory encoding?

A

It’s collected.

277
Q

What happens after a signal has been collected during sensory encoding?

A

It’s transduced

278
Q

What happens after a signal has been transduced during sensory encoding?

A

It’s processed

279
Q

What happens after a signal has been processed during sensory encoding?

A

Action takes place

280
Q

What determines the form of energy to which a receptor will respond during sensory encoding?

A

The receptor’s structure

281
Q

What does a node of Ranvier look like?

A

A notch between sausage-shaped structures along a linear structure.

282
Q

Do neurones typically have 1 or more nodes of Ranvier for sensory encoding?

A

More than 1

283
Q

What does the receptor membrane of a neurone look like?

A

A smooth, linear structure preceded by a portion of axon with nodes of Ranvier.

284
Q

When do receptor potentials occur?

A

In between the arrival of stimulus energy at the receptor cell & the initiation of an action potential.

285
Q

Are the receptor potentials that occur during sensory encoding usually EPSPs or IPSPs?

A

EPSPs

286
Q

Do the receptor potentials that occur during sensory encoding align with stimulus exposure or are these independent of each other?

A

They align with stimulus exposure.

287
Q

When does an action potential occur?

A

When receptor potentials reach a certain threshold.

288
Q

Do we respond to sensory stimuli of a wide or narrow range of intensities?

A

A wide range

289
Q

Why do multiple receptor cells act in a parallel manner during sensory encoding?

A

To provide a broader range for coding the intensity of a stimulus.

290
Q

What happens as the strength of a stimulus increases?

A

New neurones are recruited to encode sensory information.

291
Q

How can intensity be represented?

A

By the number of activated cells.

292
Q

What is range fractionation?

A

The specialisation of different receptors for the encoding of particular fractions of an intensity scale.

293
Q

Which experimental setup could be used to analyse neural activity?

A

2 amplifiers (A & B) could be placed inside the head of a cat & 2 receptive fields identified (e.g. in the forelimb for cortical neurone A & tail for cortical neurone B).

294
Q

What could a receptive field on a cat’s forelimb look like?

A

3 circles, 2 smaller ones inside of 1 big one, each of different colour.

295
Q

What could a receptive field on a cat’s tail look like?

A

3 circles, 2 smaller ones inside of 1 big one, each of different colour.

296
Q

In a receptive field on a cat’s forelimb, what would the associated cortical neuronal activity of the outer ring be like?

A

Medium

297
Q

In a receptive field on a cat’s forelimb, what would the associated cortical neuronal activity of the middle ring be like?

A

Low

298
Q

In a receptive field on a cat’s forelimb, what would the associated cortical neuronal activity of the inner ring be like?

A

High

299
Q

In a receptive field on a cat’s tail, what would the associated cortical neuronal activity of the outer ring be like?

A

Medium

300
Q

In a receptive field on a cat’s tail, what would the associated cortical neuronal activity of the middle ring be like?

A

Low

301
Q

In a receptive field on a cat’s tail, what would the associated cortical neuronal activity of the inner ring be like?

A

High

302
Q

What happens to many receptors during sensory encoding when stimulation is maintained?

A

They show a progressive loss of response.

303
Q

What is sensory adaptation?

A

When receptors show a progressive loss of response when stimulation is maintained during sensory encoding.

304
Q

What happens to receptor potential between the time that it’s exposed to a stimulus (higher stimulus strength) & the time that it’s no longer exposed to a stimulus (lower stimulus strength) in slowly-adapting receptors during sensory encoding?

A

It rapidly increases, before gradually decreasing.

305
Q

What happens to receptor potential between the time that it’s exposed to a stimulus (higher stimulus strength) & the time that it’s no longer exposed to a stimulus (lower stimulus strength) in rapidly-adapting receptors during sensory encoding?

A

It rapidly increases, then rapidly decreases, before remaining level, then rapidly decreasing & increasing again (off response).

306
Q

What is the order of the visual pathway?

A

Eye, retina, thalamus, lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), primary visual cortex (striate cortex, V1) & secondary visual cortex

307
Q

What do visual fields look like?

A

Circular spaces with halves of different colours.

308
Q

What do eyes look like?

A

Spherical structures with bulges & 1 small bubble at the front.

309
Q

If you see the colours blue & green in your visual field, which colours will be picked up by the retina?

A

Blue & green

310
Q

What travels from the retina to the optic chiasma?

A

The optic nerve

311
Q

What does the optic nerve look like?

A

A long, thin linear structure.

312
Q

What does the optic chiasma look like?

A

A cross-shaped structure enclosing 4 linear structures (optic nerves) of 2 different colours.

313
Q

What connects the optic chiasma & the lateral geniculate body?

A

The optic tract

314
Q

What do optic radiations look like?

A

2 long, thin linear structures.

315
Q

What connects the lateral geniculate body & the striate area?

A

Optic radiations

316
Q

What detect different types of tactile sensation?

A

Tactile mechanoreceptors

317
Q

How many different types of tactile mechanoreceptor are there?

A

4

318
Q

What are the 4 different types of tactile mechanoreceptors?

A

Pacinian corpuscles (vibration), Meissner’s corpuscles (touch), Merkel’s discs (touch), & Ruffini’s endings (stretch)

319
Q

What do Pacinian corpuscles look like?

A

Large green leaves, with circular lines on them.

320
Q

What do Meissner’s corpuscles look like?

A

Pink, hairy bundles with squiggles at the ends.

320
Q

What do Merkel’s discs look like?

A

Narrow, purple tubes with blobs at the end.

321
Q

What do Ruffini’s endings look like?

A

Thick purple structures with blue squiggles running through them.

322
Q

What are the characteristics of the receptive fields of Pacinian corpuscles?

A

They are large with vague borders

323
Q

What are the characteristics of the receptive fields of Meissner’s corpuscles?

A

They are small with sharp borders.

324
Q

What are the characteristics of the receptive fields of Merkel’s discs?

A

They are small with sharp borders.

325
Q

What are the characteristics of the receptive fields of Ruffini’s endings?

A

They are large with vague borders.

326
Q

What are 2 potential stimulus-response properties?

A

Fast- or slow-adapting receptors.

327
Q

Are Pacinian corpuscles fast-/ slow-adapting?

A

They’re fast-adapting

328
Q

Are Meissner’s corpuscles fast-/ slow-adapting?

A

They’re fast-adapting

329
Q

Are Merkel’s discs fast-/ slow-adapting?

A

They’re slow-adapting

330
Q

Are Ruffini’s endings fast-/ slow-adapting?

A

They’re slow-adapting

331
Q

What would the action potentials involved in a fast-adapting receptor look like?

A

There would be concentrated lines either side of a large gap in the centre.

332
Q

What would the action potentials involved in a slow-adapting receptor look like?

A

There would be evenly-spaced vertical lines across 1 horizontal line.

333
Q

Which order does the tactile pathway occur in?

A

It starts with mechanoreceptors, then moves along to the dorsal column & thalamus, before moving to primary & secondary somatosensory cortexes (S1 & S2), & ending with the associative areas (e.g. the parietal lobe).

334
Q

What does a cross-section of the midbrain look like?

A

A relatively thin, butt-shaped, light-coloured structure.

335
Q

What does the posterior column of the spinal cord look like?

A

4 stretched-out, rounded, diamond-shaped structures.

336
Q

What does a spinal nerve look like?

A

2 tubes, 1 with a bulge in the middle, converging into 1 unified tube.

337
Q

What can be found in the midbrain?

A

The medial lemniscus & the second neurone.

338
Q

Where are spinal nerves located?

A

Either side of the spinal cord.

339
Q

What do the nuclei of the medulla look like?

A

4 separate rounded, diamond-shaped structures.

340
Q

Where is the somatosensory homunculus located?

A

In the primary somatosensory cortex (S1)

341
Q

What is the somatosensory homunculus?

A

A distorted representation of the human body, based on a neurological “map” of the areas & proportions of the human brain dedicated to processing tactile signals for different parts of the body.

342
Q

What is 1 way in which the somatosensory homunculus can be visually represented?

A

As a man with disproportional features, such as a man with a much larger tongue than foot.

343
Q

Which order does the auditory (hearing) pathway occur in?

A

It starts with the cochlea, then moves along to the auditory (cochlear) nerve & the olivary nucleus (brainstem), before moving to the inferior colliculus & medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus), & ending with the auditory cortex.

344
Q

What does the cochlea look like?

A

A shell-like structure, with a spiral-shaped component & several loop-shaped components.

345
Q

Which structures run in between the cochleae & the ventral cochlear nuclei?

A

Cochlear nerves

346
Q

What does a superior olive look like?

A

An elongated spherical structure located at the tip of the brainstem.

347
Q

What does an inferior colliculus look like?

A

A small globular structure in the midbrain.

348
Q

What does a medial geniculate nucleus look like?

A

A large orbed structure located in the thalamus.

349
Q

What do the dorsal cochlear nuclei connect to

A

The inferior colliculi & cochlear nerves

350
Q

What do the inferior colliculi connect to?

A

The dorsal cochlear nuclei, the superior olives, & the medial geniculate nuclei.

351
Q

What do the medial geniculate nuclei connect to?

A

The inferior colliculi & auditory cortexes.

352
Q

Which pathway is associated with the sense of touch?

A

The tactile pathway

353
Q

Which pathway is associated with the sense of hearing?

A

The auditory pathway

354
Q

Which pathway is associated with the sense of balance?

A

The vestibular pathway

355
Q

Which order does the vestibular pathway occur in?

A

It starts with vestibular receptors, then moves along to the brainstem & the cerebellum, before moving to the thalamus, & ending with the vestibular areas.

356
Q

What are rods & cones receptors for?

A

Vision

357
Q

What area acts as a sensory relay?

A

The thalamus

358
Q

What do the semicircular canals respond to?

A

Angular acceleration

359
Q

Is there a unimodal vestibular cortex or a vestibular cortical network?

A

A vestibular cortical network.

360
Q

Does the vestibular cortical network have a unique or bland anatomical arrangement?

A

A unique one

361
Q

Which areas of the brain are associated with the vestibular cortical network?

A

The somatosensory cortex, premotor cortex, anterior insula, posterior parietal cortex, temporoparietal junction (TPJ), & hippocampus.

362
Q

How are different levels of motor control systems organised?

A

Hierarchically

363
Q

In relation to motor control, what controls skeletal muscles in response to sensory information (reflexes & voluntary movements)?

A

The spinal cord

364
Q

What does the brainstem do once it’s integrated motor commands from higher levels of the brain?

A

It transmits them to the spinal cord.

365
Q

Which structure initiates motor commands?

A

The primary motor cortex.

366
Q

In addition to the primary motor cortex, what is a source of motor commands?

A

The non-primary motor cortex.

367
Q

How are motor control systems organised from most to least important?

A

The spinal cord is the most important, then the brainstem, then the primary motor cortex, & the non-primary motor cortex is the least important.

368
Q

Which motor control systems do the primary & non-primary motor cortexes communicate with, as well as communicating with each other?

A

The spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, & basal ganglia.

369
Q

Which motor control systems does the thalamus communicate with?

A

The primary & non-primary motor cortexes

370
Q

Which motor control systems does the cerebellum communicate with?

A

The thalamus & brainstem.

371
Q

Which motor control systems does the brainstem communicate with?

A

The spinal cord; & muscles of the head, neck, & face.

372
Q

Which motor control systems does the spinal cord communicate with?

A

The muscles of the body

373
Q

Which motor control system do the basal ganglia communicate with?

A

The thalamus

374
Q

What is 1 cortical area involved in motor control?

A

The primary motor cortex (M1)

375
Q

Which structures, other than M1, are involved in motor control?

A

The basal ganglia & cerebellum.

376
Q

What are the basal ganglia?

A

A group of subcortical forebrain nuclei (consisting of the caudate nucleus, putamen/ striatum, globus pallidus, & subthalamic nucleus)

377
Q

What do basal ganglia modulate in relation to motor control?

A

Patterns of motor activity.

378
Q

What does the cerebellum control?

A

Neural “programmes” for the execution of skilled movements & motor learning.

379
Q

What activity does electromyography record?

A

The activity of individual muscles/ muscle fibres during action.

380
Q

What are the striatum (caudate & putamen), & the globus pallidus?

A

Basal ganglia

381
Q

What is the main neurotransmitter involved in the muscular junction?

A

Acetylcholine

382
Q

What influence emotional expression?

A

Brain lesions

383
Q

What is a neural correlate of emotion?

A

The Papez circuit (aka, the limbic system)

384
Q

What can the destruction of a set of interconnected pathways in the brain impair?

A

Emotional processing

385
Q

Which structures of the brain are involved in the Papez circuit?

A

The fornix, neocortex, cingulate cortex, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, hypothalamus, & hippocampus.

386
Q

What does the fornix look like?

A

A thin, curled tube.

387
Q

What does the neocortex look like?

A

A thick, bumpy, pink layer of the brain.

388
Q

What does the cingulate cortex look like?

A

A “C”-shaped, bumpy inner layer of the brain.

389
Q

What do the anterior nuclei of the thalamus look like?

A

Small, globular structures in the middle of the brain.

390
Q

What does the hippocampus look like?

A

A “C”-shaped tube running along the bottom area of the brain.

391
Q

Which structure does the neocortex directly interact with?

A

The cingulate cortex

392
Q

Which structures does the cingulate cortex directly interact with?

A

The neocortex & the hippocampus

393
Q

Which structure does the hippocampus directly interact with?

A

The hypothalamus

394
Q

Which structures does the hypothalamus directly interact with?

A

The anterior nuclei of the thalamus

395
Q

Which structure do the anterior nuclei of the thalamus directly interact with?

A

The cingulate cortex

396
Q

What is the neocortex responsible for?

A

Emotional colouring

397
Q

What is the cingulate cortex responsible for?

A

Emotional experience

398
Q

Which structure enables communication between the hippocampus & hypothalamus?

A

The fornix

399
Q

What is the hypothalamus responsible for?

A

The expression of emotion

400
Q

What is an example of the fear conditioning paradigm?

A

A rat being placed in a box with a grid underneath, & a sound being played inside of the box- when the sound occurs the second time, the grid is electrified,- when the rat hears the sound the third time, it’s scared of the sound (increase in blood pressure).

401
Q

What is the amygdala involved in?

A

The processing of fear.

402
Q

What characterises the Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

A

The lack of fear/ aggression.

403
Q

What does the nucleus accumbens release?

A

Dopamine

Neuroscience (5 decks)

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