Review for Chapter 3

Question 1

What is the principle of charity?

Answer 1

requires interpreting a speaker’s statements to be rational and, in the case of any argument, considering its best, strongest possible interpretation.

Assuming the best in someone when they are making a claim or argument.

Question 2

What is linguistic Ambiguity

Answer 2

something that is said or written that can be taken two ways.

I.e “The chickens are ready to eat.”

Now they are either hungry and waiting for their food or they have reached the proper size/age when they are ready to be eaten.

Question 3

What is an ambiguous sentence?

Answer 3

One that has two or more different but possibly quite precise meanings

Question 4

What is a vague sentence?

Answer 4

One that lacks a precise meaning.

Question 5

What is Referential ambiguity?

Answer 5

This is when a word or phrase could in the context of a particular sentence refer to two or more properties or things

Question 6

What is grammatical Ambiguity?

Answer 6

This arises when the grammatical structure of a sentence allows two interpretations.

Tom Said I was hungry
Tom Said “I was hungry”

The above example illustrates how the above examples change who is the one saying their hungry

Question 7

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

Billy gave his sisters a box of candy for Christmas

Answer 7

There is a referential ambiguity here since it is unclear whether the term his sisters is being used collectively or distributively. if it is used distributively, the sentence means that Billy gave two boxes of candy, one to each sister. if it is being used collectively, the sentence means that Billy gave his sisters one box of candy to be shared between them.

Question 8

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

He’s A chicken

Answer 8

Because chicken can be used metaphorically to characterize a cowardly person or literally to refer to a kind of bird, this sentence is referentially ambiguous.

Question 9

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

Melissa Only has one Dress

Answer 9

There is a grammatical ambiguity in this sentence. literally, the sentence means that Melissa has nothing else in the world besides her one dress. if the location of the word only is changed to make the sentence read Melissa has only one dress, it means that although she may have many possessions, she has only one dress. This is the more likely meaning.

Question 10

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

The General loses Battle with Nurses ( A newspaper headline)

Answer 10

The term General is referentially ambiguous. it could refer to a local hospital, in which case the sentence means that the nurses won their strike with the hospital. Or it could refer to a specific military officer, in which case the sentence means that the officer was beaten by the nurses in some kind of contest or struggle. in a town that has a local hospital that is routinely called The General, however, it will usually be clear which interpretation is best.

Question 11

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

Conversational German is extremely difficult

Answer 11

if the term Conversational German is being merely mentioned, then it refers to a textbook or a course, and the sentence means that it is a difficult book or course. if the term is being used, then the sentence means that it is difficult to learn how to speak conversational german.

Question 12

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

Children Need discipline to become responsible adults

Answer 12

The term discipline is referentially ambiguous. it could refer simply to corporal punishment, which is how some people use the term. But it could refer to a set of rules imposed by adults that children are expected to follow. it could also refer to self-discipline, that is, to a set of rules that children learn to develop for themselves. The meaning of the sentence is quite different depending upon which reference we choose.

Question 13

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

If after you think it over, you still decide to drop out of school, I promise I won’t say another word to you.

Answer 13

This is grammatically ambiguous. it is likely that the speaker is promising to drop this subject after the condition has been met, that is, if the person thinks over once again the plan to drop out of school. however, if we read the passage according to its literal meaning, there is another claim on the surface: the speaker promises he or she will never to speak to the person again if the condition is met. in most contexts, the principle of charity would require us to interpret the speaker as meaning … I won’t say another word to you about dropping out of school.

Question 14

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

In Multi-Sections Courses, the instructors should be free to choose the text.

Answer 14

The term instructors is referentially ambiguous. if it is being used collectively, the sentence means that the instructors, as a group, are free to choose whatever text they can all agree on. if the term is being used distributively, the sentence means that each instructor is free to choose whatever text he or she wishes.

Question 15

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

Eighty percent of the stores tested illegally sell cigarettes to minors with no questions asked

Answer 15

The sentence is grammatically ambiguous. if illegally modifies tested the sentence means that the stores were illegally tested. if illegally modifies sell it means that the stores were illegally selling cigarettes.

Question 16

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

She Arrived at the theater in a white limousine with a bright red hood

Answer 16

This sentence is grammatically ambiguous. if with a bright red hood modifies limousine the sentence means that the limousine has a bright redhood. But if with a bright redhood completes she arrived the sentence means that she was wearing a bright red hood.

Question 17

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

The apartment superintendent came to our door during the party last night to complain about the noise in his pyjamas

Answer 17

This sentence is grammatically ambiguous. literally, it says that the noise the superintendent complained about was coming from his own pyjamas. however, the principle of charity encourages us to interpret the speaker as saying that the superintendent was wearing his pyjamas when he was complaining about noise coming from the apartment. The comic effect of the sentence depends on seeing the literal meaning and recognizing that the speaker intends us to interpret it as the principle of charity suggests.

Question 18

Identify the kind of Ambiguity in the following sentence and state the different way in which it can be interpreted.

Tell me where she hit you

Answer 18

This sentence is referentially ambiguous. The speaker could be asking about where on the person’s body they were struck, or the speaker could be asking about where the person was at the time they were struck.

Question 19

A statement that is true by definition would be called what?

Answer 19

An analytic Statement

Question 20

A statement that is false by definition would be called a what?

Answer 20

A Contradictory Statement

Question 21

What is a Synthetic Statement?

Answer 21

A statement whose truth or falsity is not solely Dependent upon the meaning of the words in it.

Question 22

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

A full deck of playing cards contains 52 cards

Answer 22

analytic. if you know what a full deck of cards is, you know that it must have 52 cards. (Of course, a few card games require players to use the jokers, but this is a special case that would be cleared up by the speakers sorting out what is meant by full deck, not by counting cards.)

Question 23

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

A yard is longer than a foot

Answer 23

analytic. Since a foot is defined as one-third of a yard, a foot is by definition shorter than a yard.

Question 24

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

It is better to be free and unhappy than to be a contented slave

Answer 24

Synthetic. There is nothing about the meanings of the words in this sentence that guarantees its truth or falsity.

Question 25

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

No one has ever run the marathon in less than two hours

Answer 25

Synthetic. The truth or falsity of this sentence can only be determined by checking a reference book on sports records. The meaning of the sentence leaves its truth or falsity an open question.

Question 26

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

Death comes for us all sooner or later

Answer 26

Synthetic. as far as we know, this is a true statement. But its truth is something we have learned and is not determined by the meaning of the sentence.

Question 27

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

I’m not saying that postal workers should not have the legal right to strike, but the postal service is so vital to the economy and postal strikes cause so much personal inconvenience to so many people that I think the government should enact legislation banning strikes in the post office.

Answer 27

Contradictory. The first clause in the sentence is contradicted by the last clause.

Question 28

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

In the southern hemisphere the sun rises in the west and sets in the east

Answer 28

Synthetic. assuming that the speaker correctly understands the meanings of the words in this sentence, he or she could only be proven wrong by sending him or her to the southern hemisphere with a compass.

Question 29

Determine if this Sentence is: Analytic, Synthetic, or Contradictory

All parents love their children when they are newborn

Answer 29

Synthetic. Observations would be needed to determine the truth of this statement.

Question 30

Synthetic. Observations would be needed to determine the truth of this statement.

A rose by any other name would smell so swee

Answer 30

Synthetic, on both the literal and metaphorical interpretation. in both cases, the truth of the sentence could only be determined by investigating the facts.

Question 31

Synthetic. Observations would be needed to determine the truth of this statement.

a ROSE IS A ROSE IS A ROSE

Answer 31

On a literal interpretation this is an analytic statement. however, it would normally be used to mean something like You should not adopt romantic or highly speculative interpretations of ordinary things, which is synthetic.

Question 32

What is a descriptive meaning?

Answer 32

A meaning that is cognitive (have truth values) and express propositions

Question 33

What is an evaluative meaning?

Answer 33

They are meanings that are non-cognitive, expressing attitudes instead

Question 34

Indicate and analysis the Evaluative and Descriptive meaning of the capitalized word in the sentence below.

There is VICIOUS competition among students at the Juilliard school of music.

Answer 34

The evaluative meaning is negative. Descriptively, vicious competition means that the usual aspects of competitiveness (such as wanting to be better than others, complaining when others do well, trying to place others at a disadvantage) are carried to extreme lengths. a good descriptive synonym would be fierce.

Question 35

Indicate and analysis the Evaluative and Descriptive meaning of the capitalized word in the sentence below

Jennifer is a COMPILSIVELY tidy person

Answer 35

The evaluative meaning is negative. Descriptively, a compulsively tidy person is unavoidably uncomfortable with even minor untidiness, and is driven by an irresistible inner force to tidy up. a good descriptive synonym would be extremely. 3. The evaluative meaning

Question 36

Indicate and analysis the Evaluative and Descriptive meaning of the capitalized word in the sentence below

This year mark has been a very RESPONSIBLE student

Answer 36

The evaluative meaning is positive. Descriptively, responsible student means that Mark gets his homework done, submits his assignments on time, pays attention in class, follows the school rules, and so on. Perhaps the best descriptive equivalent phrase would be hard working and thorough.

Question 37

Indicate and analysis the Evaluative and Descriptive meaning of the capitalized word in the sentence below

During the last 30 years the moral standards of ordinary people have DECLINED

Answer 37

The evaluative meaning is negative, since a decline in moral standards means that they have changed by becoming more permissive. The descriptive meaning of declined in this context is that moral standards have been enforced less strictly. a good descriptive synonym is relaxed.

Question 38

Indicate and analysis the Evaluative and Descriptive meaning of the capitalized word in the sentence below

Simon is one of those people whose main motivation in life is GREED

Answer 38

The evaluative meaning is negative. Descriptively, greed refers to a desire for money and material goods. a good descriptive equivalent would be a substantial desire for money and material goods.

Question 39

Indicate and analysis the Evaluative and Descriptive meaning of the capitalized word in the sentence below

The Governor announced that the budget for social services would be SLASHED by 12 percent over he next three years.

Answer 39

The evaluative meaning is negative, because it suggests that the budget reduction has been ruthless or excessive. Descriptively, slashed means reduced, and reduced substantially is the best descriptive synonym.

Question 40

Indicate and analysis the Evaluative and Descriptive meaning of the capitalized word in the sentence below

Jon was SUCKERED by the salesman into buying the car

Answer 40

The evaluative meaning is negative. Descriptively, suckered means being persuaded to do something by underhanded or dishonest means. The best descriptive synonym is persuaded.

Question 41

X is a necessary Condition for Y if, and only if, when X is false Y must also be false. Or when X is absent, Y cannot occur. This is an example of what?

Answer 41

A Necessary Condition

Question 42

X is a sufficient condition for Y if, and only if, when X is true Y must also be true. OR when X is present Y must occur. In other words A sufficient condition for Y is something whose truth or presence guarantees Y, but whose falsity or absence does not prevent Y. This is an example of what?

Answer 42

Sufficient Condition

Question 43

What is a Jointly Sufficient Condition?

Answer 43

that means that they serve as a sufficient condition, *as a group

Question 44

State whether the quoted phrase is a necessary condition, or sufficient condition, or a combination of the two

To bring down a fever “apply a cloth dampened in cold water to the patients face, arms and legs.”

Answer 44

a sufficient condition, since this is only one of several ways to bring down a fever. if interpreted as a necessary condition, it would mean that this is the only way of bringing down a fever, which is false.

Question 45

State whether the quoted phrase is a necessary condition, or sufficient condition, or a combination of the two

“Any student who has not paid his or her tuition fee by the first day of the ter or who has not made arrangements with the bursars office for delayed payment” will automatically be required to withdraw from the university.

Answer 45

The two conditions stated are jointly sufficient conditions for being required to withdraw from the university. if interpreted as a necessary condition for being required to withdraw, the statement would mean that this is the only way of being required to withdraw, which is false since one can be required to withdraw for other reasons, such as failing too many courses.

Question 46

State whether the quoted phrase is a necessary condition, or sufficient condition, or a combination of the two

To be admitted as a graduate student “applications must have a four year honors degree with a 75 percent average on all courses taken in their last two years”

Answer 46

almost always a necessary condition, since while no applicants will be admitted unless they meet the stated conditions, not every student who meets these conditions can expect to be admitted. if the sentence is interpreted as stating a sufficient condition it means that every student who meets these conditions will be admitted, which is a highly implausible interpretation (although not impossible).

Question 47

State whether the quoted phrase is a necessary condition, or sufficient condition, or a combination of the two

You cannot get an A average unless “you work hard throughout the whole term”

Answer 47

Probably a necessary condition, since working hard throughout the term is not the only thing most students have to do to get an a average. if interpreted as a sufficient condition, it means that working hard will always produce an a average. This is an unlikely interpretation, since even students who work hard throughout the whole term would probably not get an a if they failed to hand in their term assignments.

Question 48

State whether the quoted phrase is a necessary condition, or sufficient condition, or a combination of the two

Essay will be returned to the student without being graded if “they are submitted without a proper Bibliography”

Answer 48

a sufficient condition, since there are normally other defects that may lead to an essay’s being returned ungraded, for example, if it is illegible or submitted late.

Question 49

State whether the quoted phrase is a necessary condition, or sufficient condition, or a combination of the two

The Bruce Prize of $500 will be awarded to the “graduating student who has the highest cumulative average in all his or her philosophy courses”

Answer 49

This statement gives both the necessary and sufficient conditions for winning the prize. if interpreted merely as a necessary condition, it would mean that, although every winner would have the highest average, some years the student with the highest average might not be awarded the prize. if interpreted merely as a sufficient condition, it would mean that, although each year the student with the highest average would receive the prize, another student who failed to achieve the highest average might also receive the prize, perhaps with the money divided between them.