REVIEW 5 Flashcards
What does lack of essential amino acids cause? Symptoms?
Protein Deficiency Malnutrition
muscle loss, lack of blood plasma proteins, abdominal swelling, lethargy, physical and/ or mental retardation, no menstruation
PKU
Phenylketonuria
Autosomal recessive disorder
Lack of Phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme leads to the inability to break down phenylalanine into tyrosine
Symptoms include mental/ developmental deficiencies, seizures
Vitamin Definition
Organic compounds important in metabolic processes
Come from other organisms
Vitamin C info
Also known as Ascorbic Acid
Essential in humans for the immune system, collagen and lipoprotein production, antioxidant properties
Deficiency leads to scurvy
Vitamin D info
Aids in bone formation and mineralization
Lack of Vitamin D decreases Calcium, leading to Rickets (bowed legs, no mineralization of growth plates, decreased height) in kids and Osteomalacia (soft/weak bones) in adults.
List of Essential Nutrient examples
SOME amino acids
SOME vitamins
SOME unsaturated fatty acids (omega 3/omega 6)
SOME minerals
Water
Inhibitory nerve signals
Vagus nerve - sends nerve signals to brain when stomach is full
Insulin from pancreas when blood sugar is too high
CCK from intestines as chyme moves into intestines
Leptin from adipose tissue
Stimulatory nerve signals
Glucagon from pancreas when blood sugar is too low
Ghrelin from stomach when stomach is empty
Causes of Malnutrition
Improper intake of nutrients (social factors, over/under nutrition)
Improper utilization of nutrients in the body due to illness or disease
Harms of being obese/overweight
Type 2 Diabetes: insulin insensitivity leads blood sugar to remain high, always hyperglycemic
Hypertension: more weight= need for heart to beat faster to move blood (due to high cholesterol and fat buildup in arteries), indicator/precursor to CHD
Two Types of fats
HDLs: Transport cholesterol from body to liver (GOOD) - increased by cis-polyunsaturated fats and decreased by trans fats.
LDLs: Transport cholesterol from liver to body (BAD) - increased by saturated/trans fats.
What is CHD
Development of atherosclerosis in coronary arteries, which causes HEART ATTACK (sad)
Proteins in energy storage
used to build muscle tissue and can be used in cellular respiration but metabolism more difficult as breakdown produces nitrogenous waste = urea in humans (removed by kidney)
Gastric Secretions
- Site/ smell of food triggers reflex response
Medulla sends signals to stomach via vagus nerve to gastric glands to secrete gastric juice (HCl + pepsin + mucus) - Food arrives in stomach, causing distention (Stretch receptors signal medulla, signal from Vagus Nerve causes gastrin secretion from endocrine cells in stomach)
- Gastrin causes sustained HCl release (parietal cells) and pepsin release (chief cells)
- IF the pH is too low, gastrin inhibited by secretin (small intestine) and
somatostatin (hypothalamus)
Function of Stomach Acid
Digestive (Breaks down macromolecules, activates pepsin for protein production)
Destroys pathogens.
How does H. pylori survive the stomach acid
Secretes urease to raise pH and mucinase to degrade mucus lining
USE PPIs to STOP IT (bind irreversibly to proton pumps)`
V. cholera infection
Vibrio cholera
Infect lining of intestines
Produces toxin that causes epithelial cells to pump ions into the intestines
Water follows ions, leading to dehydration
Villi adapted to function
MR. SLIM!!!!!
Microvilli = folded to increase surface area for absorption
Rich capillary network = decrease diffusion distance/high concentration gradient
Single layer of epithelial cells = decreases diffusion distance
Lacteals = absorb lipids
Intestinal glands = release digestive juices/ carrier fluids
Membrane proteins = facilitated diffusion and active transport
Egested food products
BELCH!!!
Bile pigments
Epithelial cells
Lignin
Cellulose
Human Microflora
Fiber benefits
Less constipation
Lowers risk of colon cancer
Reduces time of exposure to undesirable food molecules
Regulates blood sugar
Lowers cholesterol
Blood flow into and through liver
Hepatic artery (from heart) - oxygenated
Hepatic portal vein (from intestines) - deoxygenated
Arterioles/venules flow into sinusoids
Compared to “normal/ regular” capillaries, sinusoids have:
larger/wider diameter,
larger fenestrations/ openings in the endothelium/ basement membrane
contain Kupffer cells
Hepatic vein (away from liver) - lower toxins/nutrients, higher urea
Kupffer cells and hepatocytes
Kupffer cells: Engulf ruptured red blood cells through phagocytosis, break hemoglobin into heme and globin (heme to iron, globin to individual amino acids)
Hepatocytes: Store/release glucose due to insulin and glucagon, synthesize plasma proteins and non-essential amino acids, detoxify harmful substances in blood
Jaundice
Caused by excess bilirubin in the body due to liver disease/cancer
Leads to yellow skin/whites of eyes
Cardiac muscle structure and function
Branched: surface area so contraction can occur faster
Intercalated discs: connect cells for easy transfer, hold cells together
Gap junction: rapid propagation of signals due to continuous cytoplasm
Many Mitochondria: ATP!!!
Heart nodes
SA (sinoatrial node) - generates electrical signal to cause atria to contract
AV (atrioventricular node) - Receives electrical signal from SA node, delays, sends signal down Bundle of HIS to apex through purkinje fibers so that the ventricles contract
ECG
Electrocardiogram
P wave: Atria depolarize due to stimulation from SA node (atria contract)
QRS complex: Ventricles depolarize; AV node sends signals through Purkinje fibers (ventricles contract) - atria repolarize
T wave: Ventricles repolarize/ relax (diastole)
R to R = ONE cardiac cycle/ one heartbeat
machines for heart
Defibrillator: electrodes on patient’s chest, signal sent depolarizes cardiac muscle, resets SA node
Artificial pacemaker: connects to heart via wires and cables, stimulates regular contraction of heart
Control of heart rate
Chemoreceptors detect concentration of CO2 in blood
IF Co2 levels rise (PH drops), medulla sends signal through cardiac nerve, noradrenaline/norepinephrine causes heart to beat faster
As CO2 levels return to normal, medulla sends signal through vagus nerve to heart, causing SA node to fire less frequently
Causes and consequences of hypertension
fat deposition in arteries (narrower lumen),
plaque deposits in arteries (narrower lumen/ loss of elasticity),
high salt diet (more fluid retention in blood/ blood to pump), smoking (nicotine = vasoconstriction), certain medications, stress/ stress hormones (vasoconstriction), genetics
stroke, thrombosis/ blood clots, heart attack, heart failure, coronary heart disease (CHD)
Risk factors for CHD
A GODDESS!!!
Age
Genetics
Obesity
Disease
Diet
Exercise
Sex - males more likely
Smoking
Types of Lung Cells
Type 1 Pneumocytes: flat/increased surface area for gas exchange via diffusion (touches alveoli)
Type 2 Pneumocytes: cuboidal, secrete surfactant to reduce surface tension
Capillaries: minimize diffusion distance
Oxygen binding for hemoglobin vs myoglobin
Hemoglobin: has 4 sites for O2 binding, cooperative binding (s shaped curve), oxygen unloading/loading
Myoglobin: only 1 site for O2 binding, no cooperative binding, stores O2 in skeletal muscle to delay anaerobic respiration when concentration of oxygen is low
Oxygen dissociation curves for myoglobin and fetal hemoglobin
Myoglobin has higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin (no sigma either)
Fetal hemoglobin has a different shape than adult hemoglobin, leading to a greater affinity for oxygen. This is needed to ensure that oxygen moves from mother to baby in placenta
How is CO2 transported?
Dissolved in blood plasma
As carbonic acid or hydrogen carbonate ions
Bound to hemoglobin (in RBC’s)
Bohr Shift
CO2 increases acidity of blood. More H+ ions bind to hemoglobin, changing its shape and decreasing its affinity for oxygen..
This shifts O2 dissociation curve to the right, meaning more Oxygen is RELEASED
Needed during vigorous exercise
Changes in blood pH detected by chemoreceptors
Impulses from chemoreceptors sent to breathing center
Medulla sends impulses to diaphragm and
intercostal muscles to contract more frequently, which increases ventilation rate
Increased ventilation rate causes
more CO2 to be expelled from body, blood pH comes back up, and breathing rate decreases again
Adaptation to altitude
More Red blood cells produced, leads to more urination, need to drink more water
RBCs produced with more hemoglobin that has greater affinity for Oxygen
Vital capacity (amount of air per breath) increases.
Muscles make more myoglobin to store more oxygen
Kidneys secrete alkaline urine for buffering of blood pH
Greater lung surface area/chest size if living at high altitude
Emphysema
Alveoli rupture, lose elasticity, meaning less Oxygen reaches bloodstream
Causes: Smoking, irritants, pollution, fumes, coal dust
White blood cells come to “repair” alveoli to protect against irritants, but this just degrades elasticity
Treatments can HELP not cure. They include bronchodilators, elastase enzyme inhibitors, surgery (lung transplant)
Steroid hormones info
Estrogen, testosterone, progesterone
Made from cholesterol
Pass through plasma membrane of target cells and bind to receptor proteins, forming a receptor-hormone complex.
This complex moves into the nucleus and acts directly on DNA to alter gene expression.
NO ATP REQUIRED
Peptide Hormones Info
Insulin, ADH, Glucagon, FSH, LH, Prolactin, Oxytocin, Growth hormones, Leptin
Made of Amino Acids
Bind to receptors on Plasma Membrane
Activates cascade of reactions, carried out by secondary messengers in cytoplasm of cell.
This activates/inhibits enzymes or affects physiology of cell.
REQUIRES ATP
Both Steroid and peptide hormones
Act on target cells, Travel through bloodstream, effects last longer than neurotransmitters
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
ENDOCRINE CELLS RELEASE INTO BLOOD
TSH (secretes thyroxin to increase metabolic rate)
FSH (production of secondary spermatocytes/oocytes)
LH (testosterone secretion)
Prolactin (targets mammary glands for lactatioN)
Growth Hormone (targets cells throughout body, stimulates mitosis, reduces adipose tissue, activates Insulin Growth Factor in Liver)
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
RELEASED DIRECTLY INTO BLOOD
ADH (increases amount of water reabsorbed into blood)
Oxytocin (causes contractions)
What does the pituitary control?
MARGE
Metabolism
Adult Development
Reproduction
Growth
Equilibrium/homeostasis
