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REVIEW 5 Flashcards

1
Q

What does lack of essential amino acids cause? Symptoms?

A

Protein Deficiency Malnutrition
muscle loss, lack of blood plasma proteins, abdominal swelling, lethargy, physical and/ or mental retardation, no menstruation

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2
Q

PKU

A

Phenylketonuria
Autosomal recessive disorder

Lack of Phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme leads to the inability to break down phenylalanine into tyrosine

Symptoms include mental/ developmental deficiencies, seizures

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3
Q

Vitamin Definition

A

Organic compounds important in metabolic processes
Come from other organisms

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4
Q

Vitamin C info

A

Also known as Ascorbic Acid
Essential in humans for the immune system, collagen and lipoprotein production, antioxidant properties
Deficiency leads to scurvy

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5
Q

Vitamin D info

A

Aids in bone formation and mineralization
Lack of Vitamin D decreases Calcium, leading to Rickets (bowed legs, no mineralization of growth plates, decreased height) in kids and Osteomalacia (soft/weak bones) in adults.

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6
Q

List of Essential Nutrient examples

A

SOME amino acids
SOME vitamins
SOME unsaturated fatty acids (omega 3/omega 6)
SOME minerals
Water

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7
Q

Inhibitory nerve signals

A

Vagus nerve - sends nerve signals to brain when stomach is full

Insulin from pancreas when blood sugar is too high

CCK from intestines as chyme moves into intestines

Leptin from adipose tissue

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8
Q

Stimulatory nerve signals

A

Glucagon from pancreas when blood sugar is too low

Ghrelin from stomach when stomach is empty

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9
Q

Causes of Malnutrition

A

Improper intake of nutrients (social factors, over/under nutrition)

Improper utilization of nutrients in the body due to illness or disease

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10
Q

Harms of being obese/overweight

A

Type 2 Diabetes: insulin insensitivity leads blood sugar to remain high, always hyperglycemic

Hypertension: more weight= need for heart to beat faster to move blood (due to high cholesterol and fat buildup in arteries), indicator/precursor to CHD

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11
Q

Two Types of fats

A

HDLs: Transport cholesterol from body to liver (GOOD) - increased by cis-polyunsaturated fats and decreased by trans fats.

LDLs: Transport cholesterol from liver to body (BAD) - increased by saturated/trans fats.

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12
Q

What is CHD

A

Development of atherosclerosis in coronary arteries, which causes HEART ATTACK (sad)

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13
Q

Proteins in energy storage

A

used to build muscle tissue and can be used in cellular respiration but metabolism more difficult as breakdown produces nitrogenous waste = urea in humans (removed by kidney)

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14
Q

Gastric Secretions

A
  1. Site/ smell of food triggers reflex response
    Medulla sends signals to stomach via vagus nerve to gastric glands to secrete gastric juice (HCl + pepsin + mucus)
  2. Food arrives in stomach, causing distention (Stretch receptors signal medulla, signal from Vagus Nerve causes gastrin secretion from endocrine cells in stomach)
  3. Gastrin causes sustained HCl release (parietal cells) and pepsin release (chief cells)
  4. IF the pH is too low, gastrin inhibited by secretin (small intestine) and
    somatostatin (hypothalamus)
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15
Q

Function of Stomach Acid

A

Digestive (Breaks down macromolecules, activates pepsin for protein production)

Destroys pathogens.

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16
Q

How does H. pylori survive the stomach acid

A

Secretes urease to raise pH and mucinase to degrade mucus lining

USE PPIs to STOP IT (bind irreversibly to proton pumps)`

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17
Q

V. cholera infection

A

Vibrio cholera
Infect lining of intestines
Produces toxin that causes epithelial cells to pump ions into the intestines
Water follows ions, leading to dehydration

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18
Q

Villi adapted to function

A

MR. SLIM!!!!!
Microvilli = folded to increase surface area for absorption
Rich capillary network = decrease diffusion distance/high concentration gradient
Single layer of epithelial cells = decreases diffusion distance
Lacteals = absorb lipids
Intestinal glands = release digestive juices/ carrier fluids
Membrane proteins = facilitated diffusion and active transport

19
Q

Egested food products

A

BELCH!!!
Bile pigments
Epithelial cells
Lignin
Cellulose
Human Microflora

20
Q

Fiber benefits

A

Less constipation
Lowers risk of colon cancer
Reduces time of exposure to undesirable food molecules
Regulates blood sugar
Lowers cholesterol

21
Q

Blood flow into and through liver

A

Hepatic artery (from heart) - oxygenated

Hepatic portal vein (from intestines) - deoxygenated

Arterioles/venules flow into sinusoids
Compared to “normal/ regular” capillaries, sinusoids have:
larger/wider diameter,
larger fenestrations/ openings in the endothelium/ basement membrane
contain Kupffer cells

Hepatic vein (away from liver) - lower toxins/nutrients, higher urea

22
Q

Kupffer cells and hepatocytes

A

Kupffer cells: Engulf ruptured red blood cells through phagocytosis, break hemoglobin into heme and globin (heme to iron, globin to individual amino acids)

Hepatocytes: Store/release glucose due to insulin and glucagon, synthesize plasma proteins and non-essential amino acids, detoxify harmful substances in blood

23
Q

Jaundice

A

Caused by excess bilirubin in the body due to liver disease/cancer

Leads to yellow skin/whites of eyes

24
Q

Cardiac muscle structure and function

A

Branched: surface area so contraction can occur faster

Intercalated discs: connect cells for easy transfer, hold cells together

Gap junction: rapid propagation of signals due to continuous cytoplasm

Many Mitochondria: ATP!!!

25
Heart nodes
SA (sinoatrial node) - generates electrical signal to cause atria to contract AV (atrioventricular node) - Receives electrical signal from SA node, delays, sends signal down Bundle of HIS to apex through purkinje fibers so that the ventricles contract
26
ECG
Electrocardiogram P wave: Atria depolarize due to stimulation from SA node (atria contract) QRS complex: Ventricles depolarize; AV node sends signals through Purkinje fibers (ventricles contract) - atria repolarize T wave: Ventricles repolarize/ relax (diastole) R to R = ONE cardiac cycle/ one heartbeat
27
machines for heart
Defibrillator: electrodes on patient's chest, signal sent depolarizes cardiac muscle, resets SA node Artificial pacemaker: connects to heart via wires and cables, stimulates regular contraction of heart
28
Control of heart rate
Chemoreceptors detect concentration of CO2 in blood IF Co2 levels rise (PH drops), medulla sends signal through cardiac nerve, noradrenaline/norepinephrine causes heart to beat faster As CO2 levels return to normal, medulla sends signal through vagus nerve to heart, causing SA node to fire less frequently
29
Causes and consequences of hypertension
fat deposition in arteries (narrower lumen), plaque deposits in arteries (narrower lumen/ loss of elasticity), high salt diet (more fluid retention in blood/ blood to pump), smoking (nicotine = vasoconstriction), certain medications, stress/ stress hormones (vasoconstriction), genetics stroke, thrombosis/ blood clots, heart attack, heart failure, coronary heart disease (CHD)
30
Risk factors for CHD
A GODDESS!!! Age Genetics Obesity Disease Diet Exercise Sex - males more likely Smoking
31
Types of Lung Cells
Type 1 Pneumocytes: flat/increased surface area for gas exchange via diffusion (touches alveoli) Type 2 Pneumocytes: cuboidal, secrete surfactant to reduce surface tension Capillaries: minimize diffusion distance
32
Oxygen binding for hemoglobin vs myoglobin
Hemoglobin: has 4 sites for O2 binding, cooperative binding (s shaped curve), oxygen unloading/loading Myoglobin: only 1 site for O2 binding, no cooperative binding, stores O2 in skeletal muscle to delay anaerobic respiration when concentration of oxygen is low
33
Oxygen dissociation curves for myoglobin and fetal hemoglobin
Myoglobin has higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin (no sigma either) Fetal hemoglobin has a different shape than adult hemoglobin, leading to a greater affinity for oxygen. This is needed to ensure that oxygen moves from mother to baby in placenta
34
How is CO2 transported?
Dissolved in blood plasma As carbonic acid or hydrogen carbonate ions Bound to hemoglobin (in RBC’s)
35
Bohr Shift
CO2 increases acidity of blood. More H+ ions bind to hemoglobin, changing its shape and decreasing its affinity for oxygen.. This shifts O2 dissociation curve to the right, meaning more Oxygen is RELEASED Needed during vigorous exercise Changes in blood pH detected by chemoreceptors Impulses from chemoreceptors sent to breathing center Medulla sends impulses to diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract more frequently, which increases ventilation rate Increased ventilation rate causes more CO2 to be expelled from body, blood pH comes back up, and breathing rate decreases again
36
Adaptation to altitude
More Red blood cells produced, leads to more urination, need to drink more water RBCs produced with more hemoglobin that has greater affinity for Oxygen Vital capacity (amount of air per breath) increases. Muscles make more myoglobin to store more oxygen Kidneys secrete alkaline urine for buffering of blood pH Greater lung surface area/chest size if living at high altitude
37
Emphysema
Alveoli rupture, lose elasticity, meaning less Oxygen reaches bloodstream Causes: Smoking, irritants, pollution, fumes, coal dust White blood cells come to "repair" alveoli to protect against irritants, but this just degrades elasticity Treatments can HELP not cure. They include bronchodilators, elastase enzyme inhibitors, surgery (lung transplant)
38
Steroid hormones info
Estrogen, testosterone, progesterone Made from cholesterol Pass through plasma membrane of target cells and bind to receptor proteins, forming a receptor-hormone complex. This complex moves into the nucleus and acts directly on DNA to alter gene expression. NO ATP REQUIRED
39
Peptide Hormones Info
Insulin, ADH, Glucagon, FSH, LH, Prolactin, Oxytocin, Growth hormones, Leptin Made of Amino Acids Bind to receptors on Plasma Membrane Activates cascade of reactions, carried out by secondary messengers in cytoplasm of cell. This activates/inhibits enzymes or affects physiology of cell. REQUIRES ATP
40
Both Steroid and peptide hormones
Act on target cells, Travel through bloodstream, effects last longer than neurotransmitters
41
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
ENDOCRINE CELLS RELEASE INTO BLOOD TSH (secretes thyroxin to increase metabolic rate) FSH (production of secondary spermatocytes/oocytes) LH (testosterone secretion) Prolactin (targets mammary glands for lactatioN) Growth Hormone (targets cells throughout body, stimulates mitosis, reduces adipose tissue, activates Insulin Growth Factor in Liver)
42
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
RELEASED DIRECTLY INTO BLOOD ADH (increases amount of water reabsorbed into blood) Oxytocin (causes contractions)
43
What does the pituitary control?
MARGE Metabolism Adult Development Reproduction Growth Equilibrium/homeostasis

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