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REVIEW 3 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Glucose
Fructose
Galactose

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2
Q

Disaccharides

A

Sucrose
Maltose
Lactose

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3
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Amylose
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose

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4
Q

Structure of Amylose and Amylopectin in Starch:

A

Amylose is linear/ helical and subunits are bound in a 1-4 arrangement
Amylopectin is branched and subunits are bound in 1-4 AND 1-6 arrangements
SEE SLIDE FOR PICS

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5
Q

Lipids info

A

Lipids are oils and fats used in long-term energy storage

Stored as triglycerides in adipose (fat) cells

Can be hydrolyzed and used to fuel cellular respiration to make ATP (if little to no glucose is available) – used in link reaction to make acetyl CoA

Act as structural components of cell membranes (phospholipids)

Easier to store, harder to transport (INSOLUBLE)

Made up of glycerol bonded to up to 3 fatty acid chains
Condensation reactions create ester linkages between glycerol and fatty acids.

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6
Q

Types of Fatty Acids

A

Saturated: no C=C double bonds
Linear/ straight (no C=C double bonds)
Animal fats are saturated fats
Contribute to CHD

Unsaturated: fatty acids have one or more C=C double bonds between carbon atoms (forming bends or “kinks” in the fatty acid chains)
Monounsaturated fatty acids have one C=C
double bond
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have two
or more C=C double bonds
Omega-3 fatty acids (1st C=C double
bond is on 3rd carbon from omega/ methyl end)
Omega-6 fatty acids (1st C=C double bond is on
6th carbon from omega/ methyl end)
Naturally occurring polyunsaturated fatty acids are curved (called cis fatty acids). Hydrogenated fatty acids are straightened/ linear double bonds (called trans fatty acids).

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7
Q

What do trans fats contribute to?

A

High cholesterol, heart disease, liver dysfunction, cardiovascular disease

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8
Q

BMI Calculator

A

kg/m^2

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9
Q

Carbohydrates in energy storage

A

Stored as glycogen (animals) and starch (plants)
Glycogen and starch are hydrolyzed to glucose when energy needed
Short-term energy storage (disrupt osmotic balance of tissues in large quantities)

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10
Q

Lipids in energy storage

A

Stored as triglycerides (in adipose cells in liver/ muscle tissue)
Triglycerides are hydrolyzed to glycerol and fatty acids when energy needed
Long-term energy storage (hydrophobic, so do not disrupt osmotic balance and can be stored for long periods of time)
Twice the energy content (per unit mass/ per gram) of carbohydrates

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11
Q

Cellular Respiration Definition

A

the controlled release of energy (in the form of ATP) from organic compounds in cells through a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions (produces ATP molecules)
CATABOLIC

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12
Q

Where does decarboxylation happen and what does it mean?

A

Losing Carbon in the form of CO2
Happens in the link Reaction and in the Krebs Cycle

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13
Q

Where does oxidation happen?

A

Krebs Cycle
NADH and FADH are reduced and used to transport Hydrogen Ions

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14
Q

Oxidation characteristics

A

LOSE electrons
LOSE Hydrogen ions
GAIN oxygen
C-O bonds formed
Compound formed has lower potential energy

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15
Q

Reduction characteristics

A

GAIN electrons
GAIN Hydrogen ions
LOSE oxygen
C-H bonds formed
Compound formed has higher potential energy

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16
Q

Cellular Respiration Steps (LONG MARK QUESTION)

A
  1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose in the cytoplasm into ATP and pyruvate
  2. Pyruvate is actively transported into the mitochondrial matrix where it is decarboxylated and combines with coenzyme A in the link reaction to produce Acetyl CoA
  3. Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle (in the matrix) – the Krebs Cycle decarboxylates substrates to produce CO2, provide electrons to NAD+ and FADH (they become NADH and FADH2), and substrate-level phosphorylation produces ATP (2)
  4. NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport chain (in cristae/ inner mitochondrial membrane). Electrons pass down the chain to oxygen, the final electron acceptor. Oxygen, electrons, and hydrogen ions combine to form water.
  5. Proteins in the electron transport chain use the energy from electron movement to pump H+ ions from the matrix into the intermembrane space (creating a hydrogen ion concentration gradient).
  6. In chemiosmosis, H+ ions flow DOWN their concentration gradient (from the intermembrane space to the matrix) through ATP synthase proteins (in the cristae/ inner mitochondrial membrane). ATP synthase uses the energy from H+ movement to combine ADP + Pi, making ATP (34 ATP).
17
Q

How does glycolysis happen?

A

Glucose is phosphorylated (using ATP), Lysis (splits into 2 molecules), each molecule is oxidized by NAD+ (NAD+ becomes NADH), ATP is formed (net gain = 2). “Leftover” two molecules = pyruvate

18
Q

How is Acetyl CoA produced if there are no sugars?

A

Fatty Acids or Amino Acids

19
Q

Purpose of Intermembrane Space

A

Small so that Hydrogen ions can accumulate to form LARGE concentration gradient

20
Q

Photosynthesis Definition

A

an anabolic process that uses water, carbon dioxide, and energy (light = sun) to create glucose (sugar) and oxygen

21
Q

Absorption Spectrum

A

Chlorophyll a peaks around dark purple and orange-red
Chlorophyll b peaks around purple-blue and yellow-orange
Carotenoids peak twice around blue and purple
ALL ARE LOW AT GREEN (MOST IF NOT ALL REFLECTED)

22
Q

Action Spectrum

A

Peaks around purple/blue and red
Lowest around green

23
Q

Where do Light Dependent Reactions take place?

A

in the thylakoid/ thylakoid membrane/ grana of the CHLOROPLAST

24
Q

Light Dependent Reactions Summary

A
  1. Light is absorbed by pigment chlorophyll a
  2. Photolysis: light energy used to split water molecule to supply electrons to photosystem II. Oxygen gas is given off as a byproduct.
  3. Light absorbed by PSII “excites” electrons (and they “jump” to a higher energy level)
  4. Excited electrons from PSII enter first electron transport chain
  5. Electrons move down the chain to photosystem I. The movement of electrons is used to pump H+ ions from the stroma INTO the thylakoid
    Chemiosmosis: H+ ions move DOWN their concentration gradient (back into the stroma) through ATP Synthase proteins, generating ATP (Photophosphorylation – LIGHT powers the electron transport chain which aids in ATP production)
  6. Light absorbed by PSI “excites” electrons (and they “jump” to a higher energy level)
  7. Excited electrons from PSI “caught” and delivered to an electron transport chain (#2)
  8. Electrons move down the chain to NADP reductase, which reduces NADP+ to NADPH+
25
Q

Where do light independent reactions take place?

A

Stroma

26
Q

Light Independent Reactions summary

A

CALLED THE CALVIN CYCLE - PRODUCES GLUCOSE
1. Carbon Fixation
Enzyme Rubisco adds CO2 (inorganic) to RuBP (5C compound) – “fixing” it (making it part of an organic compound)
6C compound is unstable and splits into two 3C compounds (G3P = glycerate-3-phosphate = first identifiable/ measurable product of carbon fixation/ light-independent reactions)

  1. Reduction
    G3P reduced to triose phosphate sugar by NADPH from light-dependent reactions (NADPH back to NADP+ again)
    Requires ATP (from light-dependent reactions)
  2. Regeneration of RuBP
    (Most) Triose phosphate and ATP used to regenerate RuBP
    (Some) Triose phosphate used to make/ store glucose (starch)
27
Q

How to DIRECTLY measure photosynthesis?

A

Oxygen production
CO2 intake

28
Q

How to INDIRECTLY measure photosynthesis?

A

Biomass Increase: more sugars = more tissues/ growth/ more stored carbohydrate

29
Q

Photosynthesis limiting factors

A

Temperature: rate increases until dropoff when enzymes denature
Light intensity: Rate increases until saturation
CO2 concentration: Rate increases until saturation

30
Q

Thylakoids function

A

Small, disc shaped
Small lumen/ space inside – allows for rapid accumulation of protons (H+)

31
Q

Grana function

A

stacks of thylakoids
Thylakoids in stacks – increases surface area for light absorption (more photosystems with chlorophyll)

32
Q

Stroma function

A

Fluid within chloroplast/OUTSIDE of thylakoids
Contains appropriate enzymes and pH for light-independent reactions

33
Q

Double membrane function FOR CHLOROPLASTS

A

Isolates enzymes etc. from other parts of plant cell

34
Q

Rf value calculation

A

Rf value = distance pigment travels ÷ distance solvent travels

35
Q

Marks for CHROMATOGORAPHY

A

The solvent moves up the paper and carries
the pigments with it.

Different pigments have different polarities/ solubilities/densities, so move at different rates.

The distance a pigment moves divided by the
distance the solvent moves (relative to the
solvent) is the pigment’s Rf value.

Each pigment has a different Rf value (can identify pigments based on Rf values).

36
Q

Lollipop Experiment

A

Mapped the Light Independent Reactions (CALVIN Cycle!!!)

Results showed:
RuBP was initially phosphorylated

At the very beginning (within first 5 seconds of exposure), MORE G3P was radioactively labelled than any other compound (showing it was the first carboxylated/ stable product of the light-independent reactions)

After more time, triose phosphate was the
NEXT compound to be radioactively labelled

Overall, specific carbon compounds are made in a specific sequence and this cycle of reactions regenerates RuBP to begin the process again

Bio (8 decks)

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