Retake Study

Question 1

Synaptic Transmission

Answer 1

This is the process whereby action potential is translated from an electrical to a chemical signal in the form of neurotransmitters and passed from one neuron, at the synaptic terminal, to another, the postsynaptic cell. The signal is formed into neurotransmitters by vesicles and carried into the synaptic cleft where it is detected and binds to ion-gated channels. This allows the Ca2+ receptors ion-gated channels to open up and allow Ca2+ ions to enter into the channel and presynaptic cell’s terminal button. There are calcium-sensitive proteins in the presynaptic cell that are activated by calcium, and they prompt the synaptic vesicles to fuse to the cell membrane, releasing their NTs into the synapse. NTs bind to the postsynaptic receptors. The postsynaptic receptor then opens up allowing the passage of Ca2+ and neurotransmitters a specific neurotransmitter to enter. This then sets off the signal Incoming ions trigger the action potential for the postsynaptic cell and the channels close. Leftover neurotransmitters are reuptaken into the presynaptic cell or broken down by enzymes and flushed from the system.

Question 2

Action Potential

Answer 2

This is the process where a signal is sent from one neuron to another down the cell’s axon. Resting state is at -70mV, inside of the cell is negative and the outside is positive, the Na+ channel opens and depolarization occurs as Na+ rushes into the cell and the cell becomes more positive on the inside than on the outside of the cell. When the inside of the cell reaches +40mV, the Na+ channel closes and K+ rushes into the cell. This causes the repolarization to occur as the inside of the cell becomes more negative and the outside more positive. The cell overcorrects before reaching the resting phase.

Question 3

Motor Loop

Answer 3

Afferent from motor and sensory areas of the brain to the putamen then the the thalamus. The thalamus then projects back to the motor cortex giving the coordinated movement

Question 4

Cognitive/Associative Loop

Answer 4

Afferents from various cortical areas reach the caudate nucleus and nucleus succumbant which contains dopaminergic connections (providing reward affirming feelings), then projections reach the thalamus and then back to the cortical areas

Question 5

Limbic Circuit

Answer 5

hippocamus, amygdala, and the limbic lobe all project to the caudate nucleus, which fires dopaminergic projections, sending signals to the thalamus (of what behaviors to promote or inhibit), the thalamus projects back to the limbic areas of the cortex

Question 6

Acetylcholine (cholinergic)

Answer 6

Links motor neurons to muscles, plays an important role in attention, memory and sleep; found in many parts of the brain; excitatory at neuromuscular junction, inhibitory in the heart

Question 7

Dopamine

Answer 7

A type of monoamine: catecholamine; related to motivation and reward, modulates movement, activation of circuits in prefrontal cortex, attention, learning; dopaminergic; Many mental disorders and parkinsons

Question 8

Norepinephrine

Answer 8

A type of monoamine: catecholamine; related to cognitive functioning to increase arousal, vigilance, and influences the reward system; influences sleep and the sympathetic nervous system (rel: meth)

Question 9

Epinephrine

Answer 9

A type of monoamine: catecholamine; generally a hormone, prepares the body for action and diminishes other bodily processes that aren’t needed in stressful situation; “adrenaline”

Question 10

Serotonin

Answer 10

A type of monoamine; plays a role in transmission of neurochemicals, sleep, eating, arousal, pain, switches affecting various mood-states- regulation of mood

Question 11

Glutamate

Answer 11

An amino acid; major excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS, primarily in hippocampus and amygdala, important in learning

Question 12

GABA

Answer 12

An amino acid; inhibitory in CNS, most important in mediating synaptic inhibition; decreases activity, lowers arousal

Question 13

Sleep Deprivation

Answer 13

Hippocampus loss, gray matter loss, and decreased activity in the frontal and temporal lobe; attention, vigilance, higher order decision making and mood difficulties

Question 14

Caffeine

Answer 14

Binds up adenosine triphosphate (ATP), caffeine interferes with sleep for up to 10 hours,

Question 15

Cerebellum

Answer 15

“The little brain”, located in the back of the brain and responsible for sensory, motor, balance/coordination, memory, learning, emotion

Question 16

Lobes: Frontal Lobe

Answer 16

problem solving, organization, inhibition, planning

Question 17

Lobes: Temporal

Answer 17

Contains the limbic cortex, amygdala, and hippocampal formation; processing auditory information, affect, memory, and recognition (Left: verbal, right: nonverbal)

Question 18

Lobes: Occipital

Answer 18

Near the back of the brain, responsible for vision (most specialized part of the brain)

Question 19

Lobes: Parietal

Answer 19

Processes somatosensory information (speech, pain, spatial orientation)

Question 20

Meninges

Answer 20

Contains: dura, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater; located between the skull and the brain; primary function is to help protect the brain

Question 21

Blood brain barrier: cells involved

Answer 21

tight juncture of endothelial cells (and astrocyte feet)

Question 22

Blood brain barrier: purpose

Answer 22

blocks toxins and bacteria while allowing the passage of water, some gases, and lipid-soluble molecules by passive diffusion; as well as the selective transport of molecules such as glucose and amino acids that are crucial to neural functions

Question 23

Circle of willis

Answer 23

A loop of connected blood vessels at the base of the brain that is responsible for supplying blood to the brain. Looping pattern serves a protective role and if there is damage to part of it, the blood can still get to all parts of the brain (it would just be slower)

Question 24

Glymphatic systems

Answer 24

the brain’s unique waste disposal system; cerebral spinal fluid is pumped through the tissue and flushed into the circulatory system (then goes to the blood circulation system and to the liver).

Question 25

Basal Ganglia

Answer 25

Deep nuclei that coordinate all cortical activity into one behavioral output

Question 26

Limbic system

Answer 26

Involved in human emotion regulation by providing affective tone and interpreting affect

Question 27

Role of amygdala

Answer 27

Regulates mood and emotional responses; receives input from neutral sensory stimuli (associative learning takes place if reinforcer is present)

Question 28

Orbital medial prefrontal cortex and emotional learning

Answer 28

Involved in emotional learning through ongoing analysis and modification of behavior when reinforcement contingencies are rapidly changing

Question 29

Dorsolateral prefrontal circuit

Answer 29

working memory

this loop involves working memory, planning, focus

Question 30

Orbitolateral prefrontal circuit

Answer 30

behavioral regulation

this loop involves behavior output, inhibition

Question 31

Anterior cingulate/orbitomedial frontal circuit

Answer 31

(limbic) (emotional regulation)

this loop involves emotional regulation and motivation

Question 32

Four main structures impacted by ADHD

Answer 32

Cerebellum
Corpus Collosum
Basal Ganglia
Prefrontal cortices

Question 33

Memory storage

Answer 33

New information enters the hippocampal circuit
Hippocampal circuit distributes information via various neural pathways to the cerebral cortex (into long-term storage)
Cerebral cortex is where memories have received the most extensive processing and are the least vulnerable to injury

Question 34

Sleep

Answer 34

pineal gland (related to circadian rhythm), melatonin, acetylcholine, cerebellum, GABA, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonine

Question 35

Cerebral Spinal Fluid

Answer 35

the process of creation and flow and reabsorption. It is made in the choroid plexus and goes into the blood steam. It flows into the ventricles of the brain and then is reabsorbed back into the bloodstream.

CSF is involved in sleep. It protects the brain and is secreted into the ventricles as the cells in our brain get smaller to extract waste. Its jobs is to flush out the toxins from our brain and that is done during sleep. If not getting enough sleep, then the CSF will not have as much opportunity to clear the toxins from the brain as it was intended.