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Medicine: Data Interpretation > RESS > Flashcards

RESS Flashcards

1
Q

The only times you would NOT reference are:

A
  1. It is considered common knowledge2. It is your OWN opinion3. It is your OWN data/research
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2
Q

When referencing, how many authors should be listed before ‘et al’ is used ?

A

6/7

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3
Q

What is a stratified sample ?

A

Members chosen at random, but sample set into groups (strata) to ensure groups within population are equally represented, based on number of the population that makes up the sample

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4
Q

When is quota sampling useful ?

A

When time is limited, budget tight or detail not important(As can use opportunistic sample I.e. People who look most helpful in the street)

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5
Q

What is quota sampling ?

A

Sample taken from stratified population until a pre assigned quota in each stratum is represented.E.g, age rangeTherefore not random!!

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6
Q

Main disadvantage of interval sampling ?

A

Interval errors can be missed or an unusually high error rate can be detected, depending where you are sampling from

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7
Q

What us cluster sampling ?

A

Used when ‘natural’ but relatively homogenous groupings are evident in population (e.g. Regions of the UK). Simple random sampling is used within each cluster

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8
Q

Explain categorical data

A

Can be nominal or ordinal.Categorical variables can only be assigned to distinct categories and do not have a numerical value associated with them

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9
Q

How could ordinal data be made numerical ?

A

Assigning a rank scale value to each categoryNOTE: the data will still technically be classed as categorical

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10
Q

What is the difference between nominal and ordinal variables ?

A

Nominal = have NO natural order e.g. SexOrdinal= HAVE natural order e.g. Poor, good, excellentpain has natural order in symptoms (absent, mild, severe) or the Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree…strongly agree)

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11
Q

What type of data would the number of cases of MRSA on a particular ward be classed as ?

A

Numerical discrete

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12
Q

What type of data is age classed as?

A

Numerical continuousNOTE: continuous can be grouped as discrete I.e. Age is often grouped into years- rarely used days, hours, seconds etc

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13
Q

What is relative frequency ?

A

The percentage of the total frequency accounted for by particular variables

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14
Q

What does a low standard deviation indicate?

A

That the data points lie close to the mean

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15
Q

How is incidence rate calculated ?

A

Number of new cases occurring in set period/no. Of people at risk in set period (& time exposed)

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16
Q

What is included in the epidemiological triad ?

A

Time-person-place

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17
Q

Will Diseases with short duration have high or low prevalence and incidence rates ?

A

High incidenceLow prevalence

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18
Q

How is mortality rate calculated ?

A

No. Of people who die from disease in period / no. Of people who die in period (of all causes)

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19
Q

How is data adjusted e.g. For age, gender etc

A

Stratum specific rates - population split into stratum (age,gender), incidence calculated in each, weighting then assigned to each group & data adjusted accordingly

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20
Q

How is case fatality calculated ?

A

No. Of people who die for a disease In period / no. Of people with the disease

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21
Q

How are odds ratios calculated ?

A

Odds for disease of exposed group/ odds of disease of unexposed group

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22
Q

What does a risk ratio (RR) of

A

Protective effect

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23
Q

When can odds ratios be used in randomised control trials ?

A

When the RCT is dichotomous

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24
Q

Define dichotomous variables

A

The variable takes 1 of 2 forms (that are co merely different) e.g. Dead or alive

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25
Q

Type of data histograms can be used for ?

A

Numerical continuous

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26
Q

What is the use of inter quartile ranges ?

A

Able to form a graphical representation of probability distribution (box plot)

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27
Q

In normally distributed data what measure would you use to look at spread of data ?

A

Mean and standard deviation

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28
Q

What measure of distribution should be used in non normally distributed data ?

A

Median and IQR(So isn’t affected by outliers)Distribution assessed by histogram

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29
Q

What do 95% confidence intervals mean ?

A

If the experiment were repeated 100 times the results would fall into that range 95 times

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30
Q

What is standard error a measure of ?

A

How reliable the sample population mean is from that of the population, so measures precision

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31
Q

The CI should not cross the value where the variable is said to have no effect. Where are the points of no impact in ratio and difference ?

A

Ratio = 1Difference = 0

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32
Q

When is correlation the appropriate statistical analysis

A

When both the outcome and exposure are numerical

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33
Q

If the outcome is numerical, and the exposure is categorical (independent groups) what is the appropriate statistical analysis ?

A

T test or Mann-Whitney test

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34
Q

If the outcome is numerical, and the exposure is categorical (non-independent groups) what is the appropriate statistical analysis ?

A

PAIRED t testSign test

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35
Q

A hypothesis proposed after analysis is which type of hypothesis ?

A

Inductive hypothesis - explanation as why two sets of info are related to one another

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36
Q

What is a deductive hypothesis ?

A

A hypothesis proposed before analysis - predict what the relationship will be. You think that at least 2 variables are related to each other

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37
Q

If data is positively skewed, which way will its ‘tail’ be on a box plot ?

A

Tail to the rightI.e. Q1-Q2

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38
Q

When refining a search, what function does adding an asterisk (*) to the end of a word have ?

A

Denotes a truncated ending where alternative endings would be acceptedE.g. Teen* would show up teenage, teenagers, teenager, teens

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39
Q

What are Boolean operators ? Give examples.

A

Words used to refine searches, e.g. AND, OR, NOT

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40
Q

Name two methods that are used to minimise extraneous variables when randomised not possible

A

Matched-pair analysis (subjects paired with factor of interest e.g. Sex, age etc)Cross over method - subjects are their own control e.g. Take drug for a period and take placebo for a period

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41
Q

What type of study is a census ?

A

Cross sectional As looks at entire population at defined time assessing prevalence

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42
Q

What is Ansecomb’s quartet ? Relevance ?

A

4 sets of data with same statistical properties which look very different when displayed graphically - shows importance of graphical representation

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43
Q

What is responsiveness ?

A

Whether a measure can detect real change (over time?)

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44
Q

What is regression analysis ?

A

Statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables

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45
Q

What is a type 1 error ?

A

The incorrect rejection of a true NULL hypothesis- false positive for alternative hypothesis(too optimistic)

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46
Q

What is a type 2 error ?

A

Failure to reject a false NULL hypothesis- false negative for alternative hypothesis(Too pessimistic)

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47
Q

95% of data lie within how many standard deviations of the mean ?

A

1.96

48
Q

What is chi squared used for ?

A

Determine association between categorical variables

49
Q

How is standard error calculated ?

A

Standard deviation/square root of sample size

50
Q

What is Gaussian distribution ?

A

Normal distribution

51
Q

What is Student’s t-distribution ?

A

A continuous probability distribution that is a little ‘fatter’ than the normal distribution.Used to calculate CIs and in hypothesis testing when the standard deviation of the population is estimated rather than known

52
Q

What happens after you propose a hypothesis?

A

Test it - then reject and modify or not reject.

53
Q

Define population

A

Every member of a defined group of interest

54
Q

What is the only true random sample?

A

Simple random sample - population members are chosen purely a random

55
Q

What is interval sampling?

A

When you take samples at set intervals e.g drugs company take a sample of every 100th drug produced to check that it’s being made correctly.

56
Q

What type of variable is the number of a beds on a ward?

A

Numerical discrete

57
Q

What type of variable is weight or height?

A

Numerical continuous

58
Q

For what type of data would you use a bar chart?

A

Categorical and discrete metric variables

59
Q

For what type of data would you use a pie chart?

A

Categorical, may be used for numerical data

60
Q

What is cumulative frequency?

A

The running total

61
Q

How do you calculate frequency density?

A

Freq density = frequency / class width

62
Q

3 examples of measures of spread?

A

Range, Standard deviation & IQR

63
Q

3 examples of measures of central tendency?

A

Mean, median & mode

64
Q

Negative skew would result in the greatest spread in what quartile on a box plot?

A

Lower quartile

65
Q

Which type of skew would give these results; Q1-Q2 > Q2-Q3?

A

Negative skew

66
Q

Give two examples of wildcards used in literature search?

A

? = one character or none# = only one character but any character

67
Q

How would you search for eating (related) disorder?

A

Eating adj1 disorder = searches for eating disorder separated by only one word

68
Q

What phase of a clinical trial assesses effectiveness and dosage of drugs on a few hundred patients WITH the disease?

A

Phase II

69
Q

Two types of reviews?

A

Systematic - mini reports that are peer reviewed. Focus on specific topic.Non systematic - provide reviews on general topics

70
Q

What is an erratum?

A

List of corrected errors, e.g. between editions

71
Q

What is a consensus study?

A

A consensus statement developed by professionals via a group consensus process that is intended to advance health professional and/or public understanding of a targeted health problem.

72
Q

In what type of paper/article/study would you write a short paper discussing any of these 4 things; updating readers on new methods, providing an overview of the topics in an issue, press opposing opinions or clarifying positions?

A

Editorial

73
Q

What is an integrated analysis of data from several studies?

A

Metanalysis

74
Q

How do you calculate prevalence?

A

= Number of people with a disease at a certain time / number of people in the population that time

75
Q

Is prevalence data more valuable in acute or chronic disease? why?

A

Chronic diseases as it is necessary for the planning and delivery of health services

76
Q

What is prevalence made up from? (combination)

A

Incidence (+), recovery (-) & death (- & - population)

77
Q

How to calculate risk?

A

Risk = number of new cases / number at risk

78
Q

In what type of study do you use a risk ratio?

A

Cohort - used to find risk factors (exposures) disease

79
Q

In what type of study would you use odds ratio?

A

Case-control study or RCT

80
Q

What is relative risk reduction?

A

RRR = 100 - RR. Essentially its the difference the new treatment makes to the condition (compared to old/untreated group)

81
Q

Range of values of Risk?

A

0 to 1

82
Q

Range of values of Risk ration?

A

RR 1

83
Q

Calculate odds of an event?

A

odds = probability of an event (disease) / probability of the event NOT occurring

84
Q

Calculate Odds ratio?

A

OR = odds of disease for exposed group / odds for disease in unexposed group.= probability of disease occurring in exposed group / probability of disease NOT occurring in unexposed group

85
Q

Which correlation coefficient is used for normally distributed data?

A

A Pearson correlation coefficient

86
Q

What correlation coefficient is used when the data is not normally distributed, when one or both of the variables are ordinal, or when the sample size is small?

A

Spearman’s correlation coefficient

87
Q

Do larger or smaller studies have a larger CI?

A

Smaller studies = large CI. Large studies = small CI (larger studies reduce spread of data and inc the accuracy of the result in relation to population)

88
Q

What do p-values mean?

A

P = probability of obtaining the results of the test given that the null hypothesis is true

89
Q

What does p

A

That there is less than 5% chance that we got the result we did by chance.

90
Q

Which type of health prevention is this; prevention of disease by treating clinical cases, reducing disability and maximising function?

A

Tertiary prevention

91
Q

What term describes this sentence ‘using BMI rather than weight as a measure of obesity’

A

Validity = measures accurately what it is meant to measure

92
Q

Definition of reliability

A

Gives the same result on retesting

93
Q

What term described this definition ‘can detect real changes when they occur’?

A

Responsiveness

94
Q

If T statistic in T test is more than critical value = reject or accept the null hypothesis?

A

Reject the null hypothesis

95
Q

‘r’ is what coefficient?

A

Pearson correlation coefficient. Values lie between -1 & 1

96
Q

r = -1 then what is the correlation?

A

Perfect negative correlation

97
Q

Which Boolean operator would you use to search for synonyms?

A

or e.g anorexia OR eating disorder

98
Q

What is opportunity cost?

A

Choosing A over B means giving up B which implies the value of the benefits from A is greater than from B.Opportunity cost is the value of forgone benefit which could be obtained from a resource in its next best alternative use

99
Q

Disease incidence & mortality are what types of health outcomes? Record based, biological and clinical outcomes or clinical and patient reported outcomes?

A

Record based

100
Q

Give examples of biological or clinical based health outcomes?

A

Lab results, BMI, bp. body temp

101
Q

Global ratings, symptom score and QoL are examples of what type of health outcome?

A

Clinical and patient recorded outcomes

102
Q

What does PROMs stand for?

A

Patient reported outcome measures - measure quality from the patient perspective

103
Q

What three key things should health outcomes be?

A

1) Valid2) reliable3) responsive

104
Q

Benefits of knowing health outcomes?

A
  • identify treats and procedures that work and which are less effective- identify national and international variation- monitor performance against targets and over time
105
Q

What is the purpose of the medical record, list 6 things…

A

Teaching, National statistics, commissioning, Audit, legal, research and evidence.

106
Q

Type of efficacy described as ‘obtaining maximum output from a set of given resources’?

A

Technical efficacy - is concerned with how best to deliver a programme, or achieve a given objective

107
Q

Type of efficacy described as ‘production that matches the consumer demand’?

A

Allocative efficacy

108
Q

Term used to described this statement ‘concerned with the fairness or justice of the distributions of costs and benefits.’

A

Equity - another criterion for allocating resources, who benefits may matter to society.

109
Q

Difference between efficiency and equity w.r.t health economics?

A

Efficiency looks at the total benefit without considering who actually benefits whereas equity looks at the distributions of costs and benefits and whether it is fair and justifiable.

110
Q

What type of efficacy does cost effectiveness analysis address?

A

Technical efficiency

111
Q

Does cost utility analysis address allocative or technical efficiency within the health care budget?

A

Allocative

112
Q

What is the threshold for cost-effectiveness also known as?

A

Willingness to pay threshold

113
Q

What is the NICE threshold for maximum willingness to pay for health gain?

A

£20,000 - £30,000

114
Q

Does all health expenditure have an opportunity cost?

A

YES

115
Q

When do you not need ethical approval?

A

Audits/evaluations

Medicine: Data Interpretation (6 decks)

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