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human structure & function ii > Respiratory System > Flashcards

Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

Which are the organs of the respiratory system?

A

Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs (alveoli)

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2
Q

Where does gas exchange occur?

A

Alveoli of the lungs

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3
Q

Which passageways are included in the upper respiratory?

A

Passageways from the nose to the larynx

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4
Q

Which passageways are included in the lower respiratory?

A

Passageways from the trachea to the alveoli

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5
Q

What is the function of the passageways to the lungs?

A

To purify, humidify and warm incoming air.

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6
Q

What divides the nasal cavity?

A

Nasal septum

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7
Q

What kind of receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface?

A

Olfactory

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8
Q

What are the functions of the respiratory mucosa?

A

To moisten the air,
To trap incoming foreign particles,
To destroy bacteria chemically (enzymes)

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9
Q

What are the functions of the conchae?

A

To increase surface
To increase air turbulence
To increase trapping of inhaled particles.

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10
Q

What does the palate divide into?

A

The hard and soft palate

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11
Q

What are the paranasal sinuses?

A

Frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary.

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12
Q

What are the functions of the sinuses?

A

Lighten the skull, act as resonance chambers for speech, produce mucus.

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13
Q

What are the regions the pharynx?

A

Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

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14
Q

What is the function of the oropharynx and laryngopharynx?

A

To serve as passageways for air and food

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15
Q

What are the functions of the larynx?

A

To route air and food into proper channels,
To play a role in speech

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16
Q

What is the larynx made out of?

A

Eight rigid hyaline cartilages

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17
Q

Which is the biggest hyaline cartilage found in the larynx?

A

The thyroid cartilage

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18
Q

What is the function of the epiglottis?

A

To protect superior opening of the larynx,
To route food to esophagus and air to the trachea.

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19
Q

What happens to the epiglottis while swallowing?

A

Epiglottis rises and forms a lid over the opening of the larynx.

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20
Q

Why should you not talk and swallow simultaneously?

A

Food particles can pass to the trachea and cause chocking

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21
Q

Where are the vocal cords located?

A

The glottis

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22
Q

What are the functions of the trachea?

A

Vibrate with expelled air and allow us to speak

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23
Q

What keeps the trachea patent?

A

The C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

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24
Q

What is the lining of the trachea?

A

Ciliated mucosa

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25
Q

Why is the trachea ciliated?

A

They move in the opposite direction to expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from the lungs

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26
Q

Where does each bronchus enter the lung?

A

At the hilum

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27
Q

Which bronchus is wider and shorter?

A

The right

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28
Q

Why is the right bronchus shorter and wider?

A

There is less distance for it to travel to enter the lung since there are three lobes while the left only has two.

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29
Q

How many lobes are there in each lung?

A

Left lung - 2 lobes
Right lung - 3 lobes

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30
Q

What covers the surface of the lungs?

A

Serosa

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31
Q

What are the two different kinds of pleura?

A

Pulmonary (visceral) pleura: covers the lungs
Parietal pleura: lines the walls of the thoracic cavity

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32
Q

What fluid fills up the area between the layers?

A

Pleural fluid

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33
Q

What are the functions of the pleural fluid?

A

To allow lungs to glide over thorax
To reduce friction during breathing

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34
Q

What are the different zone structures?

A

Respiratory and conducting

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35
Q

Where does gas exchange take place?

A

Respiratory zone only in the alveoli

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36
Q

What does the respiratory zone include?

A

Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Alveoli

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37
Q

What does the conducting zone include?

A

Bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles

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38
Q

What kind of cells are alveoli made of?

A

Simple squamous epithelial

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39
Q

What covers the external surface of alveoli?

A

Pulmonary capillaries

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40
Q

What are alveolar macrophages?

A

Dust cells, add protection by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris.

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41
Q

What is a surfactant?

A

A lipid molecule that coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces.
It is secreted by cuboidal surfactant-secreting cells.
Keeps air sacs from collapsing

42
Q

What causes RDF?

A

Insufficient volume of surfactant in the lungs.

43
Q

What are the four events of respiration?

A

Pulmonary ventilation: air moving in & out of the lungs
External respiration: gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
Respiratory Gas Transport: transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and tissue cells

44
Q

What are the two phases of pulmonary ventilation?

A

Inspiration & Expiration

45
Q

What happens during inspiration?

A

Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
Intrapulmonary volume increases
Gas pressure decreases

46
Q

When does inspiration stop?

A

When intrapulmonary pressure = atmospheric pressure

47
Q

What happens during expiration?

A

Intrapulmonary volume decreases
Gas pressure increases
Contraction of internal intercostal muscles

48
Q

What is atmospheric pressure?

A

Pressure exerted by air surrounding the body

49
Q

What is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

Pressure in alveoli

50
Q

What is intrapleural pressure?

A

Pressure in the pleural cavity
Always negative
Two inward forces promote lung collapse and one outward force enlarge lungs

51
Q

What happens if intrapleural = atmospheric

A

Lungs will collapse

52
Q

What is transpulmonary pressure?

A

Intrapulmonary pressure - intrapleural

53
Q

What is the relationship between transpulmonary pressure and lung size?

A

The higher the transpulmonary pressure the larger the lungs.

54
Q

When will lungs collapse?

A

If
P(ip) = P(pul)
P(ip) = P(ap)
Positive P(ip)

55
Q

Which factors influence pulmonary ventilation?

A

Airway Resistance
Alveolar Surface Tension
Lung Compliance

56
Q

What is lung compliance?

A

The measure of change in lung volume that occurs with the change in transpulmonary measure.

57
Q

Why is lung compliance normally high?

A

Distensibility of lung tissue
Surfactant

58
Q

What causes diminishment of lung compliance?

A

Nonelastic scar tissue
Reduced production of surfactant
Decreased flexibility of thoracic cage

59
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

Amount if air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume. Usually around 3100 ml

60
Q

What is the expiratory reserve volume?

A

Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal expiration. Approximately 1200ml

61
Q

What is residual volume?

A

The volume of air that remains in the lungs after expiration, cannot be voluntarily exhaled. About 1200ml

62
Q

What is the function of the residual volume?

A

To allow gas exchange to continue, even between breaths.

63
Q

What is vital capacity?

A

The total amount of exchangeable air
Vital Capacity = Tidal volume + Inspiratory reserve volume + Expiratory reserve volume

64
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

The normal quiet breathing

65
Q

What is the dead space volume?

A

The air which remains in the conducting zone and never reaches the alveoli. Around 150ml

66
Q

What is the functional volume?

A

Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone. Around 350ml

67
Q

Equations:

A

Inspiratory = TV + IRV
Functional Residual Capacity = RV + ERV
Vital Capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
Total Lung Capacity = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

68
Q

What are the three kinds of dead spaces?

A

Anatomical: does not contribute to gas exchange
Alveolar: space occupied by nonfunctional alveoli
Total: sum of anatomical and alveolar

69
Q

What is the function of a spirometry test?

A

Can distinguish between Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Restrictive Disease

70
Q

What is minute ventilation?

A

The total amount of gas that flows into or out of the respiratory tract in 1 minute.
Normal at rest: 6L/min
Normal with exercise: 200L/min

71
Q

What are non-respiratory air movements?

A

Processes that can move air into and out of the lungs besides breathing and modify normal respiratory rhythm.

72
Q

What are some examples of non-respiratory air movements?

A

Cough, sneeze, yawn, crying, laughing, and hiccups.

73
Q

What is external respiration?

A

Exchange of gases occurring between the alveoli and pulmonary blood

74
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

Exchange of gases occurring between the tissue cells and blood.

75
Q

What is external respiration influenced by?

A

Thickness and surface area of the respiratory membrane
Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities
Ventilation-perfusion coupling

76
Q

What is ventilation-perfusion coupling?

A

Amount of gas exchange based on the blood volume. How much blood goes into each alveolus based on its size.

77
Q

What happens during external respiration?

A

HCO3- moves into RBCs, while Cl- moves out,
HCO3- binds with H+ to form H2CO3
H2CO3 splits by carbonic anhydrase into CO2 and H2O
Carbonic acid splits to form H2O and CO2
Venous blood –> PCo2 = 45mmHg
Alveolar = PCO2 = 40mmHg

78
Q

What happens during internal respiration?

A

Oxygen moves from blood to tissues
Carbon dioxide moves from tissues into the blood. Partial pressure and diffusion gradients reverse compared to external.

79
Q

What happens in internal respiration?

A

CO2 combines with water to form carbonic acid which quickly dissociates
HCO3- quickly diffuses from RBCs into plasma
Chloride shifts
Venous –> PO2 = 40mmHg
and PCO2 = 45mmHg

80
Q

How is O2 transported in the blood?

A

1.5% dissolved in plasma
98.5% loosely bound to each Fe of haemoglobin

81
Q

How is CO2 transported in the blood?

A

7 to 10% in the plasma
20% bound to haemoglobin
70% transported as bicarbonate ions

82
Q

What is the shape of the oxygen - haemoglobin curve?

A

S-shaped because of the binding and release of O2, influenced by PO2

83
Q

What is the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation like in arterial blood?

A

Po2 = 100mmHg
Contains 20ml of oxygen per 100ml of blood
Hb is 98% saturated

84
Q

What is the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation like in venous blood?

A

Po2 = 40mmHg
Contains 15% oxygen volume
Hb is 75% saturated

85
Q

What is venous reserve?

A

Oxygen remaining in venous blood

86
Q

What factors influence hemoglobin saturation to shift to the right?

A

Increase in:
Temperature, H+, PCo2 + and BPG
Low pH
The curve shifts to the right,
Oxygen has a lower affinity, Dissociates faster
Occurs in systematic capillaries

87
Q

What factors influence hemoglobin saturation to shift to the left?

A

Decrease in:
Temperature, H+, PCo2, and BPG

High pH

88
Q

Influence of carbonic acid - bicarbonate buffer system to blood.

A

If H+ concentration in blood rises, excess H+ is removed by combining with HCO3- to make H2Co3

If H+ concentration begins to drop, H+ is released from H2CO3

HCO3 - is reserve alkaline

89
Q

What are the changes in respiratory rate and depth that affect blood pH?

A

Slow shallow breathing –> increased CO2 –> drop in pH

Rapid deep breathing –> decrease in CO2 –> higher pH

90
Q

Which nerves control the respiratory muscles?

A

Phrenic and Intercostal nerves

91
Q

Where are the neural centers that control rate and depth located?

A

Medulla: sets basic rhythm of breathing, contains pacemaker

Pons: smoothes out respiratory breathing

92
Q

What is the normal respiratory rate?

A

12 to 15 breaths per minute

93
Q

What is hyperpnea?

A

Increased respiratory rate, due to extra oxygen needs (exercise etc.)

94
Q

What are the non-neural factors that affect respiratory rate and depth?

A

Physical factors: increased body temperature, exercise, talking, coughing

Emotional factors; fear, anger, and excitement

Chemical factors: CO2 levels
Increased levels of CO2 in the blood increase the heart rate and depth of breathing, changes in CO2 act directly on the medulla oblongata.

Chemical factors: O2 levels
Detected by chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery, information sent to the medulla, a stimulus for individuals whose systems have become accustomed to high levels of CO2

95
Q

What is hyperventilation?

A

Rising levels of CO2 in the blood,
Exhale more CO2 to elevate blood pH
May result in apnea and dizziness and lead to alkolysis

96
Q

What is hypoventilation?

A

Results when the blood is alkaline
Extremely slow or shallow breathing
Allows Co2 to accumulate in the blood in order to decrease the pH

97
Q

What are the examples of respiratory diseases?

A

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chronic Bronchitis
Emphysema
Asthma

98
Q

How does the respiratory rate change throughout life?

A

Newborns: 40 to 80 breaths per minute
Infants: 30 breaths per minute
Early Childhood: 25 breaths per minute
Adults: 12 to 18 breaths per minute

99
Q

What is hypoxia?

A

Low oxygenation, inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues –> cyanosis

100
Q

What are the different kinds of hypoxia?

A

Anemic: too few RBCs; abnormal to very low Hb
Ischemic: impaired/blocked circulation
Historic: cells unable to use O2
Hypoxemic: abnormal ventilation; pulmonary disease
Carbon monoxide poisoning: especially from fire; 200x greater affinity of hb than oxygen

human structure & function ii (9 decks)

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