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A&P Lecture Final > Respiratory System > Flashcards

Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

Singultus

A

hiccups

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2
Q

Pleural fluid function

A

holds lungs tight against thoracic cavity wall in partially inflated state

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3
Q

Larynx (structure and function):

A

tube composed of 3 cartilages
*Thyroid cartilage and cricoid cartilage are made of hyaline cartilage (protect glottis and entrance to the trachea)
*Epiglottis is made of elastic cartilage

The three functions of the larynx are:
1. To provide a patent airway (open and clear)
2. To act as a switching mechanism to route air
and food into the proper channels
* If food or liquids touch the vocal folds it sets off
coughing reflex
3. To function in voice production (houses the
vocal cords)

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4
Q

*Thyroid cartilage and cricoid cartilage are made of ________ _______(protect glottis and entrance to the trachea)
*Epiglottis is made of ______ ________

A

hyaline cartilage; elastic cartilage

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5
Q

thyroid cartilage elongates in response to ________

A

androgens

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6
Q

Chondrolaryngoplasty

A

surgery to reduce size of adam’s apple

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7
Q

-During normal breathing, the vocal cords are ____ and the glottis is a ______ ______
-During swallowing, the ___ ____ ____ and ______ close off the glottis

A

relaxed; triangular slit

false vocal cords (vestibular fold) ; epiglottis

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8
Q

Speech – intermittent release of expired air while
opening and closing the _____
* Loudness – increase loudness by increasing the
____ at which the air rushes across the ______
* Pitch – changed by changing _____ of the _______
* The _____ resonates, amplifies, and enhances
sound quality
* Sound is “shaped” into language by action of the
pharynx, tongue, ____, and _____

A

glottis

force; vocal cords

tension; vocal cords

pharynx

soft palate; lips

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9
Q

allows trachea to adjust its diameter and change the resistance to airflow as needed

A

Band of smooth muscle – (trachealis muscle)

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10
Q

mucociliary escalator

A

Mucous cells and mucous glands produce mucus that bathes exposed surfaces, traps smaller particles
- in bronchi, and bronchioles

Cilia sweep debris trapped in mucus upwards, toward the pharynx

*Can be coughed out or swallowed and carried to the stomach to destroy any microorganisms in the mucus

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11
Q

______ _______ engulf small particles that
reach lungs

A

Alveolar macrophages

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12
Q

What type of epithelium lines the respiratory tract in bronchi and bronchioles?

A

Ciliated columnar epithelial cell (mucociliary escalator)

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13
Q

Respiratory tract =

A

conducting zone + respiratory zone

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14
Q

Conducting zone:

A

nasal cavity down to the terminal bronchioles; makes
up most of the respiratory tract. Moves air and prepares it for gas exchange (moistens, warms and filters)

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15
Q

Respiratory zone:

A

Respiratory bronchioles & alveoli; site of O2 and CO2 exchange with blood

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16
Q

As bronchial tree branch and become smaller, they have less cartilage and eventually have a complete layer of ___ ____ _____ (bronchioles)

A

circular smooth muscle

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17
Q

Bronchioles

A

– Lack cartilage support and mucus-producing cells
– Dominated by smooth muscle
– Changes in the diameter control the resistance to airflow and distribution of air

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18
Q

Bronchitis

A

inflammation of smooth muscle in bronchioles

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19
Q

Throughout airways CELL TYPE (epithelium) CHANGES:
– Bronchi (1, 2, 3):
– Larger bronchioles:
– Smaller bronchioles:
– Terminal bronchioles:
- Respiratory Zone (alveoli):

A

– Bronchi (1, 2, 3): Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
– Larger bronchioles: Ciliated simple columnar epithelium
– Smaller bronchioles: Ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium
– Terminal bronchioles: Nonciliated simple cuboidal epithelium
- Respiratory Zone (alveoli): Simple squamous epithelium

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20
Q

Bronchi (1, 2, 3) epithelium:

A

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

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21
Q

Larger bronchioles epithelium:

A

Ciliated simple columnar

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22
Q

Smaller bronchioles epithelium:

A

Ciliated simple cuboidal

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23
Q

Terminal bronchioles epithelium:

A

Non-ciliated simple cuboidal

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24
Q

Alveolar sac =

A

two or more alveoli that share a common opening (lead into alveolar duct)

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24
Q
  • Respiratory Zone (alveoli) epithelium:
A

Simple squamous

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25
Q

Alveolus:

A

cup shaped, air-filled
outpouching lined with simple
squamous epithelium
-Surrounded by capillaries / elastic
fibers

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26
Q

type 1 cell of alveolar wall

A

Most prevalent – simple squamous epithelial cells line alveolar wall; site of gas diffusion

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27
Q

type 2 cell of alveoli

A

surfactant-secreting cells

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28
Q

Gas exchange occurs at the ____ _____.
Very short distance between the alveolar air and the
blood allows for ____ _____ of gases.

A

respiratory membrane; rapid diffusion

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29
Q

capnia:

A

CO2 in the blood

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30
Q

What prevents air-filled alveoli from collapsing?

A

Surfactant

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31
Q

Surfactant

A
  • Oily secretion (much like detergent or soap)
  • Secreted by Type II cells in alveoli
  • Contains phospholipids and proteins
  • Coats alveolar surfaces and reduces surface tension
  • Prevents lungs from collapsing at the end of expiration
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32
Q

Surfactant coats alveolar surfaces and _____ surface tension

A

reduces

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33
Q

Alveoli act like balloons…takes some effort
to inflate them due to:

A

LaPlace’s Law for Surface Tension

Pressure = 2(Tension)/radius or P= 2T/r

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34
Q

Without surfactant:

A

the pressure/surface tension would be greater in smaller alveoli because they have a smaller radius, and would have a tendency to collapse

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35
Q

Most babies have enough to keep alveoli from collapsing by around the ____ week of gestation
* Very premature infants will likely need _____ ____ _____

A

34th; surfactant replacement therapy

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36
Q

Respiratory Distress Syndrome

A

Difficulty breathing due to collapse of alveoli

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37
Q

Lung Compliance

A

Measure of how easily the lungs expand. Related to:
 Connective tissue of lungs
 Level of surfactant production
 Mobility of the thoracic cage

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38
Q

High Compliance:

A

normal healthy lung: elastic connective tissue and adequate surfactant. Higher the compliance – easier to fill and empty the lungs.

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39
Q

Low Compliance:

A

respiratory disorders: reduced surface tension or damaged elastic tissue
 Premature babies -lack adequate surfactant
 Emphysema – destroys connective tissue
 Arthritis / skeletal disorders – impaired articulations

40
Q

Emphysema

A

destroys lung connective tissue, makes for low lung compliance, harder/more resting energy demand to breathe

41
Q

lobar bronchus:

A

secondary bronchus (after main/primary bronchus, before tertiary/segmental bronchus)

42
Q

segmental bronchus:

A

tertiary bronchus: after lobar, before bronchioles

Each tertiary bronchus supplies one bronchopulmonary segment

43
Q

Intrapleural pressure

A

Pressure in pleural cavity between visceral and parietal pleura. Pleural fluid causes surface of each lung to stick to inner wall of the chest and superior surface of
diaphragm. Elastic fibers around each alveolus not strong enough to oppose fluid bond.

44
Q

Muscular pump

A

(diaphragm – intercostal muscles) is needed to create pressure gradients

45
Q

Asthma

A

Resistance to air flow is impacted by the diameter of the tubes through which air is flowing

46
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

***inverse relationship between pressure and volume (think air in lungs)

  • The relationship between the pressure and volume of gases
  • Important in dynamics of pulmonary ventilation; inspiration / expiration
  • If: (at a constant temp)
    – decrease volume of container, P rises
    – increase volume of container, P will fall P=1/V
47
Q

ELASTIC RECOIL

A

the rib cage returns to it’s original position and
the diaphragm relaxes, elastic recoil of tissues that are stretched during inhalation

48
Q

Tidal volume (VT)

A

normal air taken in during respiratory cycle (~
500 mL in and 500 mL out)

49
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

amount of air you can take in
above tidal volume (1900 mL female, 3300 mL male)

50
Q

Inspiratory capacity

A

TV + IRV (tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume) (total inspiratory volume)

51
Q

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

amount of air you can voluntarily
expel after quiet respiratory cycle

52
Q

Residual volume (RV)

A

amount of air in lungs after maximal exhalation

53
Q

Vital capacity

A

ERV + TV + IRV

54
Q

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

amount of air remaining in your
lungs after a quiet respiratory cycle (ERV + RV)

55
Q

Total lung capacity

A

total volume of the lungs. Vital capacity and residual volume

56
Q

pneumothorax

A

air collects between lungs and the chest wall. The air accumulation can apply pressure on the lung and heart and make the lung collapse.

57
Q

treatment of pnemothorax

A

trapped air is removed by using a chest tube

58
Q

Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax

A

lung collapse in the presence of other underlying conditions:
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
 Tuberculosis
 Pneumonia
 Asthma
 CF
 Lung cancer
 Interstitial lung cancer

59
Q

how can the lung collapse? (2 ways)

A

 Penetrating chest wound
 Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax

60
Q

External Ventilation:

A

Includes all processes involved in exchanging O2
and CO2 with the environment
1. Ventilation (breathing)
2. gas exchange between alveoli and blood

61
Q

Internal respiration

A

 Result of cellular respiration
 Involves the uptake of O2 and production of CO2 within individual cells

62
Q

myoclonus

A

involuntary twitching of muscles–in the diaphragm results in hiccups (singultus)

63
Q

phrenic nerve

A

controls thoracic diaphragm. upon its myelination, fetuses can hiccup in utero

64
Q

Dalton’s Law:

A

Partial pressure of an individual gas in a
mixture of gases is the percentage of the gas in the
mixture times the total atm pressure of the mixture of
gases

65
Q

Henry’s Law:

A

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure of that gas above the liquid

66
Q

-Range of PCO2 in the blood is about _____ mm Hg
-Range of PO2 in the blood is considerable (____ mm Hg)

A

40-45

40–104 (deoxygenated vs oxygenated)

67
Q

Differences in partial pressures of a gas facilitate _____!!

A

movement (Dalton’s law) (high pressure to low pressure): Differences in partial pressures of a gas across biological membranes facilitate diffusion

68
Q

The amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid also
depends upon its solubility:

-Carbon dioxide is the ______ (2.62 ml/dL; PC02 = 40 mm Hg

-Oxygen is _____ as soluble as carbon dioxide (0.29 ml/dL; P02= 100 mm Hg)

-Nitrogen is ____ in plasma (1.25 ml/dL; PN2= 573 mm Hg)

A

most soluble

1/20th

practically insoluble

69
Q

vesico

A

pertaining to the urinary bladder

70
Q

Due to differences in partial
pressures of O2 and CO2:

-P02 is _____ in alveoli than in capillary…02 diffuses into _____
-PCO2 is _____ in capillary than in alveoli…CO2 diffuses into ____

A

higher; capillary

higher; alveoli

71
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

The hemoglobin-oxygen combination (HbO2) (4 O per Hb)

72
Q

deoxyhemoglobin

A

(reduced hemoglobin (HHb)) …
Hemoglobin that has released oxygen

73
Q

Oxygen in the blood is bound to hemoglobin (_____%)
Approximately ____% is dissolved in the water in plasma
ATP generated ______ in the RBC

A

98.5
1.5
anaerobically

74
Q

Positive cooperative binding

A

When one molecule of O2
binds this causes a
conformational change
making other heme units
more accessible to O2

75
Q

Environmental Factors Affecting Hb Saturation:

A

– Arterial PCO2 of blood (higher PCO2 shifts right.)
– Blood pH (lower pH shifts right)
– Temperature (higher T shifts right)
– Metabolic activity within RBCs (increased BPG shifts right)

76
Q

Bohr effect

A

the result of pH on hemoglobin-saturation curve

– Caused by CO2: At the tissue (where CO2 is high) CO2
diffuses into RBC
* Series of reactions occur
* Hydrogen ions diffuse out of RBC = lowers pH

77
Q

Shift curve to the left = _____ affinity
of Hb for oxygen (less delivery of 02 to
tissues; Hb holds on to oxygen)

Shift curve to the right = ______ affinity
of Hb for oxygen (more delivery of 02
to tissues; oxygen unloaded from Hb)

A

higher; lower

78
Q

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three
forms:

A

-Dissolved in plasma
-Chemically bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin (CO2 binds to different area on Hb; binds to exposed amino groups)
-Bicarbonate ion in plasma (HCO3–)

79
Q

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three
forms:

-Dissolved in plasma – _____%

-Chemically bound to hemoglobin – ______% is carried in RBCs as _______ (CO2 binds to different area on Hb; binds to exposed _____ _____)

-Bicarbonate ion in plasma – _____% is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3–)

A

7 to 10%

20% ; carbaminohemoglobin; amino groups

70%

80
Q

Haldane Effect:

A

Describes how oxygen concentrations determine hemoglobin’s affinity for C02
. Binding of oxygen to hemoglobin displaces CO2, reduces Hb’s affinity for CO2

81
Q

Carbon dioxide diffuses into RBCs and combines with water to form _______ (H2CO3), which quickly dissociates into ______ and _______ (HC03-)

In RBCs, ______ reversibly catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid (unstable)

A

carbonic acid; hydrogen ions; bicarbonate ion

carbonic anhydrase; carbonic acid

82
Q

Hb-O =
Hb-H=
CO2-Hb=
H2C03=
HC03- =

A

Hb-O = oxyhemoglobin
Hb-H= deoxyhemoglobin
CO2-Hb= carbaminohemoglobin
H2C03 = carbonic acid
HC03- = bicarbonate ion

83
Q

Central (in medulla oblongata) and peripheral chemoreceptors (aortic arch, carotids) sense ________

A

changes in pH and PO2;

84
Q

When pH of blood gets too low (too acidic), respiration rate ______

A

INCREASES….Rid the body of excess CO2 faster!!

85
Q

_____ regulate respiratory muscles

A

Nuclei in the medulla oblongata (and pons)

86
Q

Hypercapnia:

A

increase in arterial PCo2
 Hypoventilation is a common cause of hypercapnia
 Abnormally low respiration rate
 Allows CO2 buildup in blood
 Stimulates chemoreceptors to INCREASE respiration rate (to rid the body of excess CO2)

87
Q

Hypocapnia:

A

decrease in arterial PCo2
 Excessive ventilation, hyperventilation, results in abnormally low PCO2 (hypocapnia)
 Stimulates chemoreceptors to decrease respiratory rate

88
Q

CFTR

A

Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance
Regulator

Transmembrane, integral membrane protein

When defective leads to disrupted chloride secretion, sodium
absorption and water transport across epithelium
Movement of chloride also influences movement of water down
the osmotic gradient, this helps keep the mucus thin and freely
moving
The CFTR protein also regulates the function of sodium ion
channels; Na ions follow to help balance the electrical charge

89
Q

What are the 2 ways substances
cross an epithelium?

A

Transcellular
Paracellular

90
Q

What screening should have helped
detect CF identified in this women?

A

Newborn Screening

91
Q

What is a pilocarpine sweat test?

A

Pilocarpine is a cholinergic agent – mimics the effects of acetylcholine,
stimulates muscarinic receptors on sweat glands

high Cl- = CF

92
Q

What structures in the lungs were affected
if wheezing and rales heard? What are rales?

A

Respiratory zones / terminal bronchioles / smooth muscle / alveoli

Rales are clicking, rattling, or crackling noises that
are heard using a stethoscope (auscultation). One
or both lungs can make this noise during
inhalation.

93
Q

What is bronchiectasis?

A
  • Abnormal widening of the airways due to recurrent inflammation and infection
  • Extra mucus pools in the enlarged areas
  • Bacterial overgrowth leads to lung infections
  • Cilia can’t clear the airways of debris and extra mucus, airway obstruction occurs
94
Q

CF Lung:

A

impaired Cl and bicarbonate secretion, alters
osmotic gradient, prevents fluid secretion, airway surface liquid (ASL) gets dehydrated, mucous hard to clear providing opportunity for bacterial growth

95
Q

What 3 intracellular organelles do you think are
responsible for the CF mutations?

A

Nucleus – DNA
ER
Golgi

96
Q

What are the names of the cells involved in CF/with CFTR?

A
  • Ionocytes –discovered in 2018 at Harvard, expresses high levels of CFTR,
    single cell sequencing technology. Helps better target therapies
  • Secretory cells
  • Basal cells
  • Ciliated cells
97
Q

What were 3 types of therapies that could be used to treat CF?

A

RNA Therapy
Gene Editing (basal cells)
Cell based therapy – remove cells, edit, redeliver

A&P Lecture Final (5 decks)

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