RESPIRATORY PT. 3 Flashcards
What occurs when there is a sudden cold stimulus, like plunging into cold water?
A sudden cold stimulus causes temporary apnea (an absence of breathing).
How does sudden severe pain affect breathing?
Sudden severe pain causes brief apnea, but prolonged somatic pain increases the breathing rate.
How does visceral pain affect the rate of breathing?
Visceral pain may slow the rate of breathing.
What happens when the anal sphincter muscle is stretched?
Stretching the anal sphincter muscle increases the breathing rate and can sometimes stimulate respiration in a newborn or someone who has stopped breathing.
What is the effect of physical or chemical irritation of the pharynx or larynx on breathing?
Irritation of the airways causes an immediate cessation of breathing, followed by coughing or sneezing.
How does blood pressure affect breathing rate?
The carotid and aortic baroreceptors detect changes in blood pressure. A sudden rise in blood pressure decreases the breathing rate, and a drop in blood pressure increases the breathing rate.
Voluntary hyperventilation controlled by cerebral cortex and anticipation of activity by stimulation of limbic system.
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Increase in arterial blood PCO2 above 40 mmHg (causes an increase in H+) detected by peripheral and central chemoreceptors.
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Decrease in arterial blood PO2 from 105 mmHg to 50 mmHg.
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Increased activity of proprioceptors
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Increase in body temperature
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Prolonged pain.
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Decrease in blood pressure
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Stretching of anal sphincter.
Stimuli that Increase Breathing Rate and Depth
Voluntary hypoventilation controlled by cerebral cortex.
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
Decrease in arterial blood PCO2 below 40 mmHg (causes a decrease in H+) detected by peripheral and central chemoreceptors.
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
Decrease in arterial blood PO2 below 50 mmHg.
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
Decreased activity of proprioceptors.
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
Decrease in body temperature (decreases respiration rate), sudden cold stimulus (causes apnea).
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
Severe pain (causes apnea).
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
Increase in blood pressure
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
Irritation of pharynx or larynx by touch or chemicals (causes brief apnea followed by coughing or sneezing).
Stimuli that Decrease Breathing Rate and Depth
How do the respiratory and cardiovascular systems adjust during exercise?
The respiratory and cardiovascular systems make adjustments in response to both the intensity and duration of exercise.
What happens to pulmonary perfusion during exercise?
As cardiac output rises, pulmonary perfusion (blood flow to the lungs) increases.
How does the O2 diffusing capacity change during maximal exercise?
The O2 diffusing capacity may increase threefold during maximal exercise because more pulmonary capillaries become maximally perfused.
What happens to the surface area available for O2 diffusion during exercise?
There is a greater surface area available for the diffusion of O2 into pulmonary blood capillaries during exercise.
What happens when muscles contract during exercise?
When muscles contract, they consume large amounts of O2 and produce large amounts of CO2.
How does breathing change during vigorous exercise?
During vigorous exercise, O2 consumption and breathing both increase dramatically.
What causes the abrupt increase in breathing at the start of exercise?
The abrupt increase in breathing is due to neural changes that send excitatory impulses to the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) in the medulla.
What are the factors contributing to the abrupt increase in breathing during exercise?
The factors include (1) anticipation of activity stimulating the limbic system, (2) sensory impulses from proprioceptors in muscles, tendons, and joints, and (3) motor impulses from the primary motor cortex.
What causes the gradual increase in breathing during moderate exercise?
The gradual increase in breathing during moderate exercise is due to chemical and physical changes in the bloodstream, including slightly decreased PO2, slightly increased PCO2, and increased temperature.
How does strenuous exercise affect the chemical balance in the body?
During strenuous exercise, HCO3− buffers H+ released by lactic acid in a reaction that liberates CO2, which further increases PCO2.
What happens to breathing after an exercise session?
At the end of an exercise session, an abrupt decrease in breathing is followed by a more gradual decline to the resting level.
What causes the initial decrease in breathing after exercise?
The initial decrease is due mainly to changes in neural factors when movement stops or slows.
What contributes to the more gradual decline in breathing after exercise?
The more gradual decline reflects the slower return of blood chemistry levels and temperature to the resting state.
How many deaths annually in the United States are caused by cigarette smoking?
Cigarette smoking accounts for nearly 500,000 deaths annually in the United States.
What percentage of all deaths in the United States is caused by cigarette smoking?
Cigarette smoking is responsible for twenty percent of all deaths.
How many chemicals are in cigarette smoke, and how many of them are carcinogenic?
There are over 4000 chemicals in cigarette smoke, and about 70 of them are carcinogenic.
What systems in the body does cigarette smoking affect?
Cigarette smoking affects virtually every system in the body.
What are some of the conditions caused by cigarette smoking?
Conditions caused by cigarette smoking include cancer, coronary artery disease, stroke, blood clots, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, fetal disorders, cataracts, accelerated skin aging, reduced fertility, erectile dysfunction, preterm delivery, low birth weight, ectopic pregnancy, slow wound healing, diseases of the gums and teeth, and decreased immune functions.
How does cigarette smoking affect the respiratory system?
Cigarette smoking results in lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
What are some effects of cigarette smoking on respiratory efficiency?
Cigarette smoking may cause a person to become easily “winded” during even moderate exercise due to several factors decreasing respiratory efficiency.
What is the effect of nicotine on the respiratory system?
Nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles, which decreases airflow into and out of the lungs.
What is the effect of carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke?
Carbon monoxide in smoke binds to hemoglobin and reduces its oxygen-carrying capability.
What effect do irritants in cigarette smoke have on the respiratory system?
Irritants in smoke cause increased mucus secretion by the mucosa of the bronchial tree and swelling of the mucosal lining, both of which impede airflow into and out of the lungs.
What effect do irritants in smoke have on the cilia in the respiratory system?
Irritants in smoke inhibit the movement of cilia and destroy them, leading to difficulty in removing excess mucus and foreign debris, contributing to a smoker’s cough.
How does smoking affect the respiratory epithelium?
Irritants in smoke can convert the normal respiratory epithelium into stratified squamous epithelium, which lacks cilia and goblet cells.
What happens to the lungs over time due to smoking?
With time, smoking leads to destruction of elastic fibers in the lungs, which is the prime cause of emphysema.
How does the destruction of elastic fibers in the lungs affect breathing?
The destruction of elastic fibers causes collapse of small bronchioles and trapping of air in alveoli at the end of exhalation, leading to less efficient gas exchange.
The respiratory system develops from
endoderm and mesoderm
When does the development of the respiratory system begin during fetal development?
The respiratory system begins at about 4 weeks of development.
From which structure does the respiratory system begin its development?
The respiratory system begins as an outgrowth of the foregut, just inferior to the pharynx.
What is the name of the initial outgrowth of the respiratory system?
The initial outgrowth is called the respiratory bud.
What tissues give rise to the epithelial lining and glands of the trachea, bronchi, and pulmonary alveoli?
The endoderm lining the respiratory bud gives rise to the epithelial lining and glands of the trachea, bronchi, and pulmonary alveoli.
What tissues give rise to the connective tissue, cartilage, and smooth muscle of the respiratory structures?
The mesoderm surrounding the respiratory bud gives rise to the connective tissue, cartilage, and smooth muscle of these structures.
From which embryonic structures do the cartilages and muscles of the larynx originate?
The cartilages and muscles of the larynx originate from the fourth and sixth pharyngeal arches.
What does the distal end of the respiratory bud form?
The distal end of the respiratory bud enlarges to form the laryngotracheal diverticulum, which gives rise to the trachea.
When do the primary bronchial buds form, and how do they develop?
The tracheal bud divides into primary bronchial buds, which branch repeatedly and develop into the bronchi.
How many orders of branches are formed by 24 weeks of development?
By 24 weeks, 17 orders of branches have formed, and respiratory bronchioles have developed.
Between which weeks does all major lung development occur, except for structures involved in gaseous exchange?
Between weeks 6 to 16, all major lung structures have formed, except for respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and pulmonary alveoli.
At what stage can a fetus potentially survive with intensive care, despite respiratory immaturity?
A fetus born between weeks 16 to 26 may survive with intensive care, but death is often due to immaturity of the respiratory and other systems.
When does surfactant production begin, and when is it sufficient for survival of premature infants?
Surfactant production begins by 20 weeks, but amounts sufficient for survival of premature infants are not produced until 26 to 28 weeks’ gestation.
What is the risk for infants born before 26 weeks’ gestation?
Infants born before 26 weeks are at high risk of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) due to insufficient surfactant production.
What percentage of pulmonary alveoli develop before birth, and when does the rest develop?
Only about one-sixth of the full complement of pulmonary alveoli develop before birth, with the remainder developing during the first 8 years.
From which tissue do the visceral and parietal pleura develop?
The mesoderm develops the visceral and parietal pleura.
What is the pleural cavity?
The pleural cavity is the space between the visceral and parietal pleura.
What causes the aspiration of fluid into the lungs during fetal development?
Breathing movements of the fetus cause the aspiration of fluid into the lungs, a mixture of amniotic fluid, mucus from bronchial glands, and surfactant.
How much fluid is in the lungs at birth, and what happens to it after birth?
At birth, the lungs are about half-filled with fluid, which is rapidly reabsorbed by blood and lymph capillaries, with a small amount expelled through the nose and mouth during delivery.
What happens to the airways and tissues of the respiratory tract with advancing age?
With advancing age, the airways and tissues of the respiratory tract, including pulmonary alveoli, become less elastic and more rigid.
What happens to the chest wall as a person ages?
The chest wall becomes more rigid with age.
How much can vital capacity decrease by age 70?
Vital capacity can decrease by as much as 35% by age 70.
What factors contribute to the decline in respiratory function with age?
A decrease in blood O2 levels, decreased activity of alveolar macrophages, and diminished ciliary action of the respiratory tract epithelium occur.
Why are elderly people more susceptible to respiratory disorders?
Due to age-related factors, elderly people are more susceptible to conditions like pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, and other pulmonary disorders.
How do age-related changes in the respiratory system affect older adults’ ability to perform vigorous exercises?
Age-related changes in lung structure and function contribute to a reduced ability to perform vigorous exercises, such as running.
What is coronavirus disease 2019 also known as?
Coronavirus disease 2019 is also known as COVID-19.
What does the term “corona” mean?
The term corona means crown.
What do the crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus refer to?
The crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus refer to the corona.
What is the disease caused by?
The disease is caused by a new corona virus called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).
What family do coronaviruses belong to?
Coronaviruses are a family of viruses.
What illnesses can coronaviruses cause?
Coronaviruses can cause illnesses such as coryza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS).
What is the range of signs and symptoms of coronavirus infection?
Signs and symptoms of coronavirus infection range from mild to moderate upper respiratory illnesses or even lower respiratory illnesses that include pneumonia and bronchitis.
When was the COVID-19 outbreak declared a pandemic?
The COVID-19 outbreak was declared a pandemic in March 2020.
What is still unclear about COVID-19?
It is still unclear about the virus itself, all possible signs and symptoms, transmission, effects on the body, susceptibility, immunity, and treatment modalities.
How long after exposure to the virus can symptoms appear?
Symptoms can appear from 2-14 days following exposure to the virus.
What is the range of severity for symptoms of COVID-19?
Symptoms can range from very mild to severe.
What are some individuals presenting with in relation to COVID-19 symptoms?
Some individuals present with no signs or symptoms.
What are some of the signs or symptoms of COVID-19?
The signs or symptoms of COVID-19 include fever, cough, shortness of breath or difficulty breathing, wheezing, chest pain, purple swollen toes, chills, muscle pains, fatigue, headache, congestion or runny nose, sore throat, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, new loss of taste or smell, and blood clots.
Who appears to be at higher risk of serious illness from COVID-19?
Elderly individuals or those with underlying chronic medical conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, or pulmonary disease appear to be at higher risk of serious illness.
How is the new virus transmitted?
The new virus is transmitted from person-to-person in people who are in close contact.
How does the virus spread?
The virus spreads by respiratory droplets released when a person coughs, sneezes, or even talks.
What is one way to reduce the risk of infection with the virus?
One way to reduce the risk of infection is to avoid travel to or take up residence in areas known to have large numbers of COVID-19 cases.
What is another way to reduce the risk of infection with the virus?
Another way to reduce the risk of infection is to avoid close contact (within 6 feet) with someone who has COVID-19.
How can you reduce the risk of infection by social distancing?
You can reduce the risk of infection by maintaining social distance of 6 feet or more.
What should you do to wash your hands to reduce the risk of infection?
To wash your hands, use soap and water for at least 20 seconds or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol.
What should you cover your mouth and nose with when coughing or sneezing?
You should cover your mouth and nose with your elbow or a tissue when you cough or sneeze.
What should you avoid touching unless your hands are clean?
You should not touch your mouth, nose, or mouth unless you have just washed or sanitized your hands.
What household items should not be shared if you are sick?
You should avoid sharing glasses, dishes, bedding, and other household items if you are sick.
What should be done to reduce the risk of infection in shared spaces?
Clean and disinfect high-contact surfaces to reduce the risk of infection.
What should you do if you are sick to avoid spreading the virus?
If you are sick, you should stay home and quarantined.
What is the leading cause of cancer death in both males and females in the United States?
In the United States, lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in both males and females.
How many deaths does lung cancer account for annually in the United States?
Lung cancer accounts for 160,000 deaths annually in the United States.
What is usually the condition of lung cancer at the time of diagnosis?
At the time of diagnosis, lung cancer is usually well advanced, with distant metastases present in about 55% of patients, and regional lymph node involvement in an additional 25%.
What is the overall survival rate for lung cancer patients?
The overall survival rate for lung cancer patients is only 10-15%.
What is the most common cause of lung cancer?
Cigarette smoke is the most common cause of lung cancer.
What percentage of lung cancer cases are related to smoking?
Roughly 85% of lung cancer cases are related to smoking.
How much more common is lung cancer in smokers compared to nonsmokers?
The disease is 10 to 30 times more common in smokers than nonsmokers.
What is secondhand smoke associated with?
Secondhand smoke is associated with lung cancer and heart disease.
How many deaths a year in the United States are caused by secondhand smoke in relation to lung cancer?
In the United States, secondhand smoke causes an estimated 4000 deaths a year from lung cancer.
How many deaths a year in the United States are caused by secondhand smoke in relation to heart disease?
Secondhand smoke causes nearly 40,000 deaths a year from heart disease in the United States.
What are other causes of lung cancer?
Other causes of lung cancer are ionizing radiation and inhaled irritants, such as asbestos and radon gas.
What is a common precursor to the development of lung cancer?
Emphysema is a common precursor to the development of lung cancer.
What is the most common type of lung cancer?
The most common type of lung cancer is bronchogenic carcinoma.
Where does bronchogenic carcinoma start?
Bronchogenic carcinoma starts in the epithelium of the bronchial tubes.
How are bronchogenic tumors named?
Bronchogenic tumors are named based on where they arise.
What is the type of bronchogenic tumor that develops in peripheral areas of the lungs?
Adenocarcinomas develop in peripheral areas of the lungs from bronchial glands and pulmonary alveolar cells.
What type of bronchogenic tumor develops from the squamous cells in the epithelium of larger bronchial tubes?
Squamous cell carcinomas develop from the squamous cells in the epithelium of larger bronchial tubes.
What type of bronchogenic tumor develops from epithelial cells in primary bronchi near the hilum of the lungs?
Small (oat) cell carcinomas develop from epithelial cells in primary bronchi near the hilum of the lungs.
What is the appearance of small cell carcinoma?
Small cell carcinoma gets its name due to its flat cell shape with little cytoplasm.
Where do small cell carcinomas tend to involve early on?
Small cell carcinomas tend to involve the mediastinum early on.
What can bronchogenic tumors do depending on the type?
Depending on the type, bronchogenic tumors may be aggressive, locally invasive, and undergo widespread metastasis.
How do bronchogenic carcinomas begin?
Bronchogenic carcinomas begin as epithelial lesions that grow to form masses that obstruct the bronchial tubes or invade adjacent lung tissue.
Where do bronchogenic carcinomas metastasize to?
Bronchogenic carcinomas metastasize to lymph nodes, the brain, bones, liver, and other organs.
What are some symptoms of lung cancer related to the location of the tumor?
Symptoms of lung cancer include a chronic cough, spitting blood from the respiratory tract, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest pain, hoarseness, difficulty swallowing, weight loss, anorexia, fatigue, bone pain, confusion, problems with balance, headache, anemia, thrombocytopenia, and jaundice.
What are the treatment options for lung cancer?
Treatment consists of partial or complete surgical removal of a diseased lung (pulmonectomy), radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.
What is pneumonia?
Pneumonia is an acute infection or inflammation of the pulmonary alveoli.
What is the most common infectious cause of death in the United States?
Pneumonia is the most common infectious cause of death in the United States.
How many cases of pneumonia occur annually in the United States?
An estimated 4 million cases of pneumonia occur annually in the United States.
What happens when certain microbes enter the lungs of susceptible individuals?
When certain microbes enter the lungs of susceptible individuals, they release damaging toxins, stimulating inflammation and immune responses that have damaging side effects.
What do toxins and immune responses damage in pneumonia?
Toxins and immune responses damage pulmonary alveoli and bronchial mucous membranes.
What do inflammation and edema cause in the lungs during pneumonia?
Inflammation and edema cause the pulmonary alveoli to fill with fluid, interfering with ventilation and gas exchange.
What is the most common cause of pneumonia?
The most common cause of pneumonia is the pneumococcal bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Are there other microbes that can cause pneumonia?
Yes, other microbes may also cause pneumonia.
Who are most susceptible to pneumonia?
Those who are most susceptible to pneumonia include the elderly, infants, immunocompromised individuals (AIDS or cancer patients, or those taking immunosuppressive drugs), cigarette smokers, and individuals with an obstructive lung disease.
What often precedes most cases of pneumonia?
Most cases of pneumonia are preceded by an upper respiratory infection that often is viral.
What symptoms do individuals develop after an upper respiratory infection?
Individuals then develop fever, chills, productive or dry cough, malaise, chest pain, and sometimes dyspnea (difficult breathing) and hemoptysis (spitting blood).
What treatments may be involved in treating pneumonia?
Treatment may involve antibiotics, bronchodilators, oxygen therapy, increased fluid intake, and chest physiotherapy (percussion, vibration, and postural drainage).
What is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)?
COPD is a type of respiratory disorder characterized by chronic and recurrent obstruction of airflow, which increases airway resistance.
How many Americans are affected by COPD?
COPD affects about 30 million Americans.
What is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States?
COPD is the fourth leading cause of death behind heart disease, cancer, and cerebrovascular disease.
What are the principal types of COPD?
The principal types of COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
Is COPD preventable?
Yes, COPD is preventable because its most common cause is cigarette smoking or breathing secondhand smoke.
What are other causes of COPD apart from cigarette smoking and secondhand smoke?
Other causes include air pollution, pulmonary infection, occupational exposure to dusts and gases, and genetic factors.
Why are men more likely to suffer from COPD than women?
Men, on average, have more years of exposure to cigarette smoke than women, making them twice as likely to suffer from COPD.
How much has the incidence of COPD in women increased over the past 50 years?
The incidence of COPD in women has risen sixfold in the past 50 years, reflecting increased smoking among women.
What is Emphysema?
Emphysema is a disorder characterized by destruction of the walls of the pulmonary alveoli, producing abnormally large air spaces that remain filled with air during exhalation.
What happens to the surface area for gas exchange in emphysema?
With less surface area for gas exchange, O2 diffusion across the damaged respiratory membrane is reduced.
How does emphysema affect blood O2 levels and exercise?
Blood O2 level is somewhat lowered, and any mild exercise that raises the O2 requirements of the cells leaves the patient breathless.
What happens as increasing numbers of pulmonary alveolar walls are damaged in emphysema?
As increasing numbers of pulmonary alveolar walls are damaged, lung elastic recoil decreases due to loss of elastic fibers, and an increasing amount of air becomes trapped in the lungs at the end of exhalation.
What physical change can occur in the chest of someone with emphysema?
Over several years, added exertion during inhalation increases the size of the chest cage, resulting in a “barrel chest.”
What are the most common causes of emphysema?
Cigarette smoke, air pollution, and occupational exposure to industrial dust are the most common irritants.
What is another potential cause of alveolar saccules destruction in emphysema?
Some destruction of alveolar saccules may be caused by an enzyme imbalance.
What are some treatment options for emphysema?
Treatment consists of cessation of smoking, removal of other environmental irritants, exercise training under careful medical supervision, breathing exercises, use of bronchodilators, and oxygen therapy.
What is chronic bronchitis?
Chronic bronchitis is a disorder characterized by excessive secretion of bronchial mucus accompanied by a productive cough (sputum is raised) that lasts for at least 3 months of the year for two successive years.
What is the leading cause of chronic bronchitis?
Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of chronic bronchitis.
How do inhaled irritants affect the airway epithelium in chronic bronchitis?
Inhaled irritants lead to chronic inflammation with an increase in the size and number of mucous glands and goblet cells in the airway epithelium.
What happens to the mucus in the airways of someone with chronic bronchitis?
The thickened and excessive mucus produced narrows the airway and impairs ciliary function.
What happens to inhaled pathogens in the airways of someone with chronic bronchitis?
Inhaled pathogens become embedded in airway secretions and multiply rapidly.
What are some symptoms of chronic bronchitis?
Besides a productive cough, symptoms of chronic bronchitis are shortness of breath, wheezing, cyanosis, and pulmonary hypertension.
What is the treatment for chronic bronchitis?
Treatment for chronic bronchitis is similar to that for emphysema.
What is asthma (bronchial asthma)?
Asthma (AZ-ma = panting) or bronchial asthma is a disorder characterized by chronic airway inflammation, airway hypersensitivity to a variety of stimuli, and airway obstruction.
Is asthma reversible?
Asthma is at least partially reversible, either spontaneously or with treatment.
What percentage of the U.S. population is affected by asthma?
Asthma affects 3–5% of the U.S. population and is more common in children than in adults.
What causes airway obstruction in asthma?
Airway obstruction may be due to smooth muscle spasms in the walls of smaller bronchi and bronchioles, edema of the mucosa of the airways, increased mucus secretion, and/or damage to the epithelium of the airway.
What is the typical response of individuals with asthma to stimuli?
Individuals with asthma typically react to concentrations of agents too low to cause symptoms in people without asthma.
What are some common triggers of asthma attacks?
Common triggers of asthma attacks include allergens such as pollen, house dust mites, molds, or a particular food, emotional upset, aspirin, sulfiting agents, exercise, and breathing cold air or cigarette smoke.
What happens during the early phase (acute) response in asthma?
In the early phase (acute) response, smooth muscle spasm is accompanied by excessive secretion of mucus that may clog the bronchi and bronchioles and worsen the attack.
What happens during the late phase (chronic) response in asthma?
The late phase (chronic) response is characterized by inflammation, fibrosis, edema, and necrosis (death) of bronchial epithelial cells.
What chemicals are involved in asthma attacks?
A host of mediator chemicals, including leukotrienes, prostaglandins, thromboxane, platelet-activating factor, and histamine, take part in asthma attacks.
What are the symptoms of asthma?
Symptoms of asthma include difficult breathing, coughing, wheezing, chest tightness, tachycardia, fatigue, moist skin, and anxiety.
How is an acute asthma attack treated?
An acute asthma attack is treated by giving an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist (e.g., albuterol) to help relax smooth muscle in the bronchioles and open up the airways.
What is the purpose of the beta2-adrenergic agonist in asthma treatment?
The beta2-adrenergic agonist mimics the effect of sympathetic stimulation, causing bronchodilation to help relax smooth muscle in the bronchioles and open up the airways.
What is the goal of long-term asthma therapy?
The goal of long-term therapy of asthma is to suppress the underlying inflammation.
What anti-inflammatory drugs are used for long-term asthma therapy?
The most commonly used anti-inflammatory drugs for asthma are inhaled corticosteroids (glucocorticoids), cromolyn sodium (Intal®), and leukotriene blockers (Accolate®).
What bacterium causes tuberculosis (TB)?
The bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis (TB).
What is tuberculosis (TB)?
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious, communicable disease that most often affects the lungs and the pleurae but may involve other parts of the body.
How do the bacteria cause inflammation in tuberculosis?
Once the bacteria are inside the lungs, they multiply and cause inflammation, which stimulates neutrophils and macrophages to migrate to the area and engulf the bacteria to prevent their spread.
What happens if the immune system is impaired in tuberculosis?
If the immune system is impaired, the bacteria may escape into blood and lymph to infect other organs.
Do symptoms develop immediately in tuberculosis?
In many people, symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, lethargy, anorexia, low-grade fever, night sweats, cough, dyspnea, chest pain, and hemoptysis do not develop until the disease is advanced.
What factors have contributed to the increased incidence of tuberculosis in the United States?
Factors contributing to the increased incidence of tuberculosis in the U.S. include the spread of HIV, homelessness, increased drug abuse, increased immigration from countries with a high prevalence of tuberculosis, increased crowding in housing among the poor, and airborne transmission of tuberculosis in prisons and shelters.
How does HIV affect the likelihood of developing tuberculosis?
People infected with HIV are much more likely to develop tuberculosis because their immune systems are impaired.
What has caused outbreaks of tuberculosis involving drug-resistant strains?
Outbreaks of tuberculosis involving multi-drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis have occurred because patients fail to complete their antibiotic and other treatment regimens.
How is tuberculosis (TB) treated?
Tuberculosis (TB) is treated with the medication isoniazid.
What is pulmonary edema?
Pulmonary edema is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces and pulmonary alveoli.
What are the two causes of pulmonary edema?
The edema may arise from increased permeability of the pulmonary capillaries (pulmonary origin) or increased pressure in the pulmonary capillaries (cardiac origin).
What is the most common symptom of pulmonary edema?
The most common symptom of pulmonary edema is dyspnea.
What are other symptoms of pulmonary edema?
Other symptoms of pulmonary edema include wheezing, tachypnea (rapid breathing rate), restlessness, feeling of suffocation, cyanosis, pallor (paleness), diaphoresis (excessive perspiration), and pulmonary hypertension.
What are some treatments for pulmonary edema?
Treatment for pulmonary edema consists of administering oxygen, drugs that dilate the bronchioles and lower blood pressure, diuretics to rid the body of excess fluid, drugs that correct acid-base imbalance, suctioning of airways, and mechanical ventilation.
What is one of the recent culprits in the development of pulmonary edema?
One of the recent culprits in the development of pulmonary edema was found to be “phen-fen” diet pills.
What is Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)?
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the sudden, unexpected death of an apparently healthy infant during sleep.
When does SIDS rarely occur?
SIDS rarely occurs before 2 weeks or after 6 months of age, with the peak incidence between the second and fourth months.
Which infants are more common to have SIDS?
SIDS is more common in premature infants, male babies, low-birth-weight babies, babies of drug users or smokers, babies who have stopped breathing and have had to be resuscitated, babies with upper respiratory tract infections, and babies who have had a sibling die of SIDS.
Which ethnic groups are at higher risk for SIDS?
African-American and Native American babies are at higher risk for SIDS.
What is the exact cause of SIDS?
The exact cause of SIDS is unknown.
What might be linked to the cause of SIDS?
SIDS may be linked to an abnormality in the mechanisms that control respiration or low levels of oxygen in the blood. It may also be linked to hypoxia while sleeping in a prone position (on the stomach) and the rebreathing of exhaled air trapped in a depression of a mattress.
What is recommended for infant sleep to reduce the risk of SIDS?
It is recommended that for the first 6 months, infants be placed on their backs for sleeping (“back to sleep”).
What is Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)?
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an example of an emerging infectious disease, a disease that is new or changing.
What are other examples of emerging infectious diseases?
Other examples of emerging infectious diseases are West Nile encephalitis, mad cow disease, and AIDS.
When did SARS first appear and where?
SARS first appeared in southern China in late 2002 and has subsequently spread worldwide.
What causes SARS?
SARS is a respiratory illness caused by a new variety of coronavirus.
What are the symptoms of SARS?
Symptoms of SARS include fever, malaise, muscle aches, nonproductive (dry) cough, difficulty in breathing, chills, headache, and diarrhea.
What percentage of patients with SARS require mechanical ventilation?
About 10–20% of patients with SARS require mechanical ventilation.
What is the death rate for SARS?
The death rate for SARS is 5–10%, usually among the elderly and persons with other medical problems.
How is SARS primarily spread?
SARS is primarily spread through person-to-person contact.
Is there an effective treatment for SARS?
There is no effective treatment for SARS.
What is malignant mesothelioma?
Malignant mesothelioma is a rare form of cancer that affects the mesothelium (simple squamous epithelium) of a serous membrane.
What is the most common form of malignant mesothelioma?
The most common form, about 75% of all cases, affects the pleurae of the lungs (pleural mesothelioma).
What is the second most common form of malignant mesothelioma?
The second most common form of malignant mesothelioma affects the peritoneum (peritoneal mesothelioma).
What are the other forms of malignant mesothelioma?
Other forms of malignant mesothelioma develop in the pericardium (pericardial mesothelioma) and the testes (testicular mesothelioma).
How many cases of malignant mesothelioma are diagnosed each year in the United States?
About 2000–3000 cases of malignant mesothelioma are diagnosed each year in the United States, accounting for about 3% of all cancers.
What is the primary cause of malignant mesothelioma?
Asbestos is almost entirely responsible for causing malignant mesothelioma, and it has been widely used in insulation, textiles, cement, brake linings, gaskets, roof shingles, and floor products.
When do signs and symptoms of malignant mesothelioma typically appear?
The signs and symptoms of malignant mesothelioma may not appear until 20–50 years or more after exposure to asbestos.
What are the signs and symptoms of pleural mesothelioma?
Symptoms of pleural mesothelioma include chest pain, shortness of breath, pleural effusion, fatigue, anemia, blood in sputum, wheezing, hoarseness, and unexplained weight loss.
How is malignant mesothelioma diagnosed?
Diagnosis is based on a medical history, physical examination, radiographs, CT scans, and biopsy.
What is the prognosis for malignant mesothelioma?
The prognosis is generally poor, as it is usually diagnosed in later stages after symptoms appear, and there is usually no cure unless the tumor is found very early and can be completely removed by surgery.
What treatments are available for malignant mesothelioma?
Treatments may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or a combination of therapies known as multimodality therapy, to help decrease symptoms.
Contributions of the Respiratory System for All Body Systems
Provides oxygen and removes carbon dioxide and helps adjust pH of body fluids through exhalation of carbon dioxide
Increased rate and depth of breathing support increased ac tivity of skeletal muscles during exercise
Muscular System
Nose contains receptors for sense of smell; Vibrations of air flowing across vocal folds produce sounds for speech
Nervous System
Angiotensin-converting enzyme in lungs catalyzes forma tion of the hormone angiotensin II from angiotensin I
Endocrine System
During inhalations, respiratory pump aids return of venous blood to the heart
Cardiovascular System
Hairs in nose, cilia and mucus in trachea, bronchi, and smaller airways, and alveolar macrophages contribute to nonspecific resistance to disease; Pharynx contains lymphatic tissue (tonsils); Respiratory pump (during inhalation)
Lymphoid (Lymphatic) System and Immunity
Forceful contraction of respiratory muscles can assist in defecation
Digestive System
Together, respiratory and urinary systems regulate pH of body fluids
Urinary System
Increased rate and depth of breathing support activ ity during sexual intercourse; Internal respiration provides oxygen to developing fetus
Genital (Reproductive System)
First- aid procedure designed to clear the airways of obstructing objects. It is performed by applying a quick upward thrust between the navel and costal margin that causes sud den elevation of the diaphragm and forceful, rapid expulsion of air in the lungs; this action forces air out the trachea to eject the obstructing object. The abdominal thrust maneuver is also used to expel water from the lungs of near- drowning victims before resuscitation is begun.
abdominal thrust maneuver
Oxygen starvation due to low atmospheric oxygen or interference with ventilation, external respiration, or internal respiration.
asphyxia
Inhalation of a foreign substance such as water, food, or a foreign body into the bronchial tree; also, the drawing of a substance in or out by suction.
aspiration
A condition in which the lungs appear black instead of pink due to inhalation of coal dust over a period of many years. Most often it affects people who work in the coal industry
Black lung disease
A chronic dilation of the bronchi or bronchioles resulting from damage to the bronchial wall, for example, from respiratory infections.
Bronchiectasis
Visual examination of the bron chi through a bronchoscope, an illuminated, flexible tubular instru ment that is passed through the mouth (or nose), larynx, and trachea into the bronchi. The examiner can view the interior of the trachea and bronchi to biopsy a tumor, clear an obstructing object or secre tions from an airway, take cultures or smears for microscopic exami nation, stop bleeding, or deliver drugs.
Bronchoscopy
A repeated cycle of irregular breathing that begins with shallow breaths that increase in depth and rapidity and then decrease and cease altogether for 15 to 20 seconds. Cheyne– Stokes is normal in infants; it is also often seen just before death from pulmonary, cer ebral, cardiac, and kidney disease.
Cheyne–Stokes respiration
Painful or labored breathing.
Dyspnea
Loss of blood from the nose due to trauma, infection, allergy, malignant growths, or bleeding disor ders. It can be arrested by cautery with silver nitrate, electrocau tery, or firm packing. Also called nosebleed.
Epistaxis
Slow and shallow breathing.
Hypoventilation
Sounds sometimes heard in the lungs that resemble bubbling or rattling. Rales are to the lungs what murmurs are to the heart. Different types are due to the presence of an abnormal type or amount of fluid or mucus within the bronchi or pulmonary alveoli, or to bronchoconstriction that causes turbulent airflow.
Rales
A condition in which the respiratory system either cannot supply sufficient O2 to maintain metabolism or can not eliminate enough CO2 to prevent respiratory acidosis (a lower- than- normal pH in interstitial fluid).
Respiratory failure
Chronic or acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose due to viruses, bacteria, or irri tants. Excessive mucus production produces a runny nose, nasal congestion, and postnasal drip.
Rhinitis
A disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing for 10 or more seconds while sleeping. Most often, it occurs because loss of muscle tone in pharyngeal muscles allows the airway to collapse.
Sleep apnea
Mucus and other fluids from the air passages that is expectorated (expelled by coughing).
Sputum
Inflammation of the pharynx caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes. It may also involve the tonsils and middle ear.
Strep throat
Rapid breathing rate.
Tachypnea
A whistling, squeaking, or musical high- pitched sound during breathing resulting from a partially obstructed airway.
Wheeze
