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Physiology with pharmacology - L1 > Respiration > Flashcards

Respiration Flashcards

1
Q

What is compliance?

A

measure of elasticity

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2
Q

What is another word for compliance?

A

distensibility

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3
Q

What is the equation for compliance?

A

Compliance = change in velocity/change in pressure

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4
Q

What is the definition for compliance?

A

the ease with which the lungs & thorax expand during pressure changes

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5
Q

If someone has low compliance, what does this lead to?

A

more work required to inspire e.g. pulmonary fibrosis - lung parenchyma is more rigid

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6
Q

If someone has high compliance, what does this lead to?

A

often involves more difficult expiring (loss of elastic recoil) e.g. emphysema

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7
Q

What is the result of fibrosis on lung compliance?

A

harder to expand the lungs - change is smaller

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8
Q

What is the result of emphysema?

A

the same change in pressure leads to a higher change in lung volume.

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9
Q

What are the 2 major component to the elastic recoil of the lungs?

A
  • anatomical component - elastic nature of cells & extracellular matrix
  • elastic recoil due to surface tension generated at air-fluid interface
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9
Q

What occurs when the elastin in the lungs are in a saline solution?

A

inflation with liquid - small pressure change = rapid change in lung volume (lack of surface tension)

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10
Q

What occurs when the elastin in the lungs are in air?

A

would have normal fluid - leading to surface tension to surface-water interface.
- despite increase in pressure, not much change in volume. This is because surface tension needs to be overcome.
- the alveoli will then pop open, leading to an increase in volume.
- surface tension not as significant during expiration

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11
Q

Why is surface tension created?

A

due to a difference in the forces of water molecules at the air/water interface develops
- in a gas bubble there is a balance between pressure exerted by the gas & the surface tension at the gas/water border

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12
Q

What equation explains surface tension?

A

Laplace:
P=2T/r
(Pressure generated in air bubble in water = 2 x surface tension/divided by radius)

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13
Q

Does surface tension remain constant?

A

yes

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14
Q

What level of pressure is in a small bubble?

A

small bubble = small radius = high pressure

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15
Q

What level of pressure is in a large bubble?

A

large bubble = large radius = low pressure

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16
Q

What are alveoli?

A

air sacs, surrounded by fluid

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17
Q

Where is pressure higher - larger sac or smaller alveoli sac?

A

smaller sac

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18
Q

What occurs as a result of air flowing from smaller alveoli to larger, due to the difference in pressure concentration?

A

they collapse

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19
Q

What is used to overcome the collapse of alveoli?

A

production of surfactant

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20
Q

What produces surfactant?

A

Type 2 pneumocystis

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21
Q

What is surfactant made of?

A

lipids & proteins

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22
Q

How does surfactant aim to prevent alveoli from collapse?

A

reduce surface tension. lipids partition the surface-water interface by creating a pull-upwards, reducing surface tension

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23
Q

What level of surfactant is found in small alveoli?

A

high

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24
Q

What is another use of surfactant?

A

the lungs can use surfactant to maintain steady volume & prevent over-expansion of alveoli

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25
Q

What volume can not be measured by spirometry?

A

residual lung volume

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26
Q

What are the 2 types of dead space?

A
  • Anatomical dead space
  • Physiological dead space
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27
Q

What is anatomical dead space?

A

volume of conducting airways. At rest approximately 30% of inspired air volume (150ml)

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28
Q

What is physiological dead space?

A

volume of lungs not participating in gas exchange.
- conducting zone + non-functional areas of respiratory zone.
- normally the 2 valves are almost identical.

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29
Q

What are the static values on a spirometer?

A
  • Residual volume
  • Vital capacity
  • Total lung capacity
  • FEV1
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30
Q

What is residual volume?

A

the air remaining in your lungs after maximum exhalation (can’t be measured via Spirometry)

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31
Q

What is vital capacity (VC)?

A

maximum inhalation to maximum exhalation

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32
Q

What is total lung capacity?

A

residual volume + vital capacity

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33
Q

What is FEV1?

A

Forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (following deep inhalation)

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34
Q

What are the dynamic values in a spirometer?

A
  • Tidal volume
  • Expiratory reserve volume
  • Inspiratory reserve volume
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35
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

amount of air breathing and out

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36
Q

What is expiratory reserve volume?

A

air between bottom of vital volume & reserve volume

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37
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

air between normal breath and how much you can breathe

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38
Q

What is functional residual capacity?

A

volume of air at the end of normal expiration down to full volume

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39
Q

What is inspiration capacity?

A

end of normal expiration - how much can you then breathe in

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40
Q

When does reserve volume change?

A

in response to the demand of metabolism

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41
Q

How do you calculate residual volume?

A

nitrogen-dilution techniques (helium dilution in the lungs)

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42
Q

Describe the nitrogen-dilution technique

A
  1. Breathe in & out of air chamber (with known volume).
  2. starting volume contains helium, which doesn’t pass across the alveoli.
  3. keep breathing & helium becomes diluted in the lungs.
  4. calcuate total volume
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43
Q

What is the equation for calculating residual volume?

A

volume 1 x concentration = volume 2 x concentration 2

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44
Q

Describe the relationship between flow rate & resistance

A

flow rate is inversely proportional to the resistance

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45
Q

What is the equation for flow rate?

A

flow = change in pressure (between alveoli & atmosphere)/ resistance

46
Q

What does Poiseuille’s law impact?

A

the impact of resistance on flow is determined by Poiseuille’s law

46
Q

Describe the relationship between airway resistance & gas viscosity & the length of the tube

A

airway resistance is proportional to gas viscosity

46
Q

Describe the relationship between airway resistance & the fourth power of the radius

A

airway resistance is inversely proportional to the 4th power of the radius

47
Q

How much % increase in resistance occurs with a 10% change in radius?

A

50%

47
Q

What is the normal total airway resistance in a human?

A

1.5cm H2O.s litres -1

48
Q

What % of total resistance occurs in the pharynx & larynx?

A

40%

48
Q

Airways that have a diameter of >2mm make up what %?

A

40%

49
Q

Airways that have a diameter of <2mm make up what %?

A

20%

50
Q

Do airways with a diameter of >2mm have resistance in series or parallel?

A

Resistance in series

51
Q

Do airways with a diameter of <2mm have resistance in series or parallel?

A

Resistance in parallel

52
Q

Why do airways with more than 2mm contribute to resistance?

A

as there are a lot more tubes connected in series

53
Q

How does airway diameter impact airway resistance?

A

increased mucus secretion will effectively reduce airway diameter - increased resistance

54
Q

What is oedema?

A

increased fluid retention in lung tissue will cause swelling & narrowing of the airways - increased resistance

55
Q

Why do airway collapse?

A

for example during forced expiration narrows airway, increasing resistance

56
Q

How does the parasympathetic control the bronchial smooth muscle?

A

acetylcholine is released from the vagus, which acts on Muscarinic receptors, leads to CONSTRICTION.

57
Q

How does the sympathetic control the bronchial smooth muscle?

A

norepinephrine is released from nervous - weak agonist leads to DILATION

58
Q

What are humoral factors that affect the bronchial smooth muscle?

A
  • Epinephrine circulating in the blood - better agonist leads to DILATION
  • Histamine - released during inflammatory processes - leads to CONSTRICTION
59
Q

What is the composition of air?

A

dry & wet at standard atmospheric pressure of 760mmHg

60
Q

What is Dalton’s Law?

A

the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of their individual partial pressure

61
Q

What are the 2 most prevalent gases in the atmosphere?

A
  • Nitrogen
  • Oxygen
62
Q

What is Henry’s law?

A

Gas[dis] = s x Pgas

s = solubility coefficient
P = is the partial pressure of the gas

63
Q

How many subunits do haemoglobin have?

A

2a chains
2b chains

64
Q

What subunits are found in foetal haemoglobin?

A

2a chains
2g chains

65
Q

How many iron atoms are in foetal haemoglobin?

A

1

66
Q

In what form does iron have to be in order for oxygen to bind?

A

Fe2+

67
Q

What enzyme is used to convert Fe3+ to Fe2+

A

methaemoglobin

68
Q

What are the 2 states that haemoglobin can exist?

A
  • tense state
  • relaxed state
69
Q

Describe the affinity for O2 that haemoglobin has in its tense state

A

low affinity for O2

70
Q

Describe the affinity for O2 that haemoglobin has in its relaxed state

A

high affinity for O2

71
Q

What is majority of blood bound to?

A

haemoglobin

72
Q

What factors affect the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve?

A
  • temperature
  • CO2
  • pH
  • 2-3 diphosphoglycerate
73
Q

Which way does the curve shift if there is an increase in temperature?

A

RIGHT - as the temperature increase, the haemoglobin is able to carry less oxygen

74
Q

What is the name of the effect given, when the curve shifts to the right, as a result of an increase in pH?

A

Bohr effect

75
Q

What is 2,3 diphosphogylcerate?

A

it is a metabolite in the glycotic pathway, meaning a high presence of 2,3 DPG indicates an area to be metabolically active (metabolically active tissue).

76
Q

What causes a right shift in the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve?

A
  • increased temperature
  • increased CO2 production
  • decrease in pH (local acidification)
77
Q

What is the result of a decreased affinity for O2 on haemoglobin?

A

more O2 released to the tissue

78
Q

What does a lack of sensitivity for 2,3 DPG lead to?

A

a leftward shift in the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve

79
Q

What is the physiological benefit of foetal haemoglobin having being shifted left in the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve?

A

it makes it easier for the placenta to take oxygen from the mother - leading to a higher affinity for oxygen

80
Q

Carbon dioxide + water = ?

A

carbonic acid

81
Q

What is carbonic acid broken down into?

A

bicarbonate & a proton (hydrogen ion)

82
Q

How does CO2 affect the pH of a solution?

A

increase in CO2 = increase in acidity of a solution

83
Q

What are different ways CO2 is carried in the blood?

A
  • dissolved carbon dioxide
  • carbonic acid
  • bicarbonate
  • carbonate
  • carbamino compounds
84
Q

How is the majority of CO2 transported in the blood?

A

in the form of bicarbonate

85
Q

How much CO2 remains in the plasma?

A

10-11% - can dissolved in CO2 or can combine & make carbamino compounds

86
Q

What reaction does the enzyme carbonic anhydrase speed up?

A

the conversion of CO2 + water –> bicarbonate

87
Q

What 2 protein compounds allow for the transfer of CO2 into the cell (90% of it)?

A
  • aquaporin 1
  • rhesus-A glycoprotein
88
Q
A
88
Q
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88
Q

What % of CO2 dissolves in the cytoplasm of the erythrocytes?

A

4%

88
Q

What does 20% of of CO2 bind to?

A

amino acid residues on the proteins, forming carbamino compounds

88
Q
A
88
Q
A
88
Q

What does the enzyme carbonic anhydrase facilitate the production of?

A

bicarbonate

88
Q
A
88
Q

What transports bicarbonate out of the erythrocytes?

A

a carbon exchanger (chloride-bicarbonate exchanger) - chloride shift

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Physiology with pharmacology - L1 (17 decks)

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