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Resource Security Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a resource?

A

Something that has value and is made use of by people

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2
Q

What are the two types of resource (not stock or flow)?

A

Human and physical resources

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3
Q

What is resource security?

A

The abilllity to safeguard a reliable and sustainable flow of resources to maintain the living standards of a population - is dealt with on a national level.

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4
Q

What are the three types of resources?

A

Stock
Flow
Critical flow

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5
Q

What is a stock resource?

A

A resource which is finite and non renewable, including things such as metal ores and mineral deposits

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6
Q

What is a flow resource?

A

Renewable resources that are infinite, e.g. solar energy and wind power

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7
Q

What is a critical flow resource?

A

Flow resources that can be exhausted if not managed effectively

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8
Q

What is a possible resource?

A

When there are in situ indicators that a resource reserve may be present in an area, but no sampling has been carried out. At this stage there is insignificant data to justify an exploration phase and the degree of mineral sampling confidence is insignificant.

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9
Q

What is an inferred resource?

A

When it is estimated that there is a resource in the area on the basis of limited sampling into the geology. Limited information is gathered and little sampling is done
There is insufficient data to justify the expenditure on planning the exploration phase

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10
Q

What is an indicated reserve?

A

There is greater confidence of a resource being present in an area. Mine / quarry / boring is considered, and the size of the revenue has been partially measured to create an estimate for its complete size. There is evaluation of the economic viability of deposits.
At this stage the geological and grade consistency tests to be reasonably assumed
Chance of 50% or greater that mineralisation occurs

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11
Q

What is a measured reserve?

A

The reserve has been fully measured and is known accurately, plans for mining have been detailed, and resource extraction will go ahead - assuming it is economically viable
Sufficient sample tests allow geological and grade consistency to be confirmed
Chance of 90% or greater that mineralization occurs

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12
Q

What are the 4 types of resources in order of confidence (low to high)?

A

Possible resource
Indicated resource
Inferred reserve
Measured reserve

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13
Q

What are potential stocks?

A

Stocks/reserves that have been evidenced but not fully quantified or explored

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14
Q

What are known stocks?

A

Stocks that are quantified and accesible

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15
Q

What are estimated stocks?

A

When quantification is difficult and the size of the reserve must be estimated

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16
Q

What are depleting reserves?

A

When the rate of exploitation is quicker than the speed of recovery

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17
Q

What are exhausted stocks?

A

When economically recoverable (viable) stocks have been fully depleted

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18
Q

What are the factors that decide whether a reserve is economically viable?

A
  • Market price
  • Size of stock
  • Grade
  • Remoteness/accessibility
  • Political situation
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19
Q

What are the 8 stages of the mineral resources devlopment cycle and how long is each stage?

A
  • Available land resources
  • Exploration (8-10 years)
    Environmental assesment and approval + ongoing stakeholder consultations
  • Construction (1-3 years)
  • Operation (10-30 years)
  • Closure (1-2 years)
  • Monitoring (5-infinity years)
  • Reclamation (1-4 years)
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20
Q

What is an environmental impact assesment (EIA)?

A

An EIA is a process where the impacts on the environment of a proposed project are gauged. Here, any unacceptable measures can be mitigated and reduced by taking relevant measures

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21
Q

What is an EIS?

A

An environmental impact survey comes following an EIA states what has been found and what needs to be done - it ensures decision makers consider the environment during projects and whether to go ahead with the project or not

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22
Q

What has increasingly complex and vague international environmental laws meant?

A

Construction projects are taking much longer and more expensive, with specialist contractors like the TNC Schlumburger that can be hired to prepare EIS’s and ensure their approval by the relevant authorities

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23
Q

What is the resource peak?

A

The global maximum production of a resource

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24
Q

What is hubberts peak?

A

A graph that implies that maximum oil production or global oil reseres will occur toward the middle of the reserves life cycle

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25
Q

When does the resource peak occur?

A

About 40 years after the discovery peak

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26
Q

What can hubberts curve be used for?

A

Used during exploration and prodcution companies to estimate future production rates
It also indicates when oil will be cheapest and consumers will be buying/consuming more of the resource.

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27
Q

What can cause a quick decline in production after peak oil?

A

Because the highest quality and most accesible oil will be extracted first, the decline of production of peak oil may be hastened by more challenging extraction and production processes.

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28
Q

What is a resource frontier?

A

A place where it is possible to get a resource from which it wwas previously had not been exploited from before.

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29
Q

Why may a resource frontier not been exploited from before?

A

-It was not technically possible to exploit
-It had previously been too expensive to exploit or just not economically viable

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30
Q

What is the best example of a resource frontier?

A

The Arctic

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31
Q

Why has it been difficult to exploit resources from the Arctic?

A

Remoteness -> Difficult to get people there especially in winter months
Weather/climate -> Difficult to operate there
Communications
Environmental sensitivity
Icebergs

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32
Q

Why is the Arctic now a resource frontier?

A

Climate change is making the Arctic more exploitable
- Shell has been given licenses from the US gov to exploit the arctic, although haven’t done so as oil prices have been unstable and the need to avoid a PR distaster
- Russia has begun drilling for oil creating many oil spills already

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33
Q

What are examples of resource frontiers other than the Arctic?

A
  • Athabasca Tar sands
  • Deep water drilling in the gulf of mexico (deep water horizon
  • Copper from the sea bed
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34
Q

What are examples of critical flow resources that need to be managed sustainably?

A

Water
Forestry
Soil

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35
Q

Why is the resource peak difficult to predict?
peak may be delayed

A
  • technology makes new sources viable
  • new reserves discovered
  • new areas allowed
    peak may come sooner
  • demand drops ( renewable or less economically viable)
  • too difficult to extract
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36
Q

What are the challenges of the hubberts curve?

A
  • attempting to measure the size and nature of future resource demand is difficult
  • reserves are constantly reassessed as societies and technologies develop
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37
Q

What is the General pattern of oil consumption and production in the middle east?

A

Middle east has a surplus of oil - produce a lot but consume relatively little.

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38
Q

What is OPEC?

A

Orginisation for petroleum exporting countries they are a group of 13 countries who seek to control the supply of oil

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39
Q

What is the issue regarding LPG?

A

Middle east exports a lot of Liquid petroleum gas but Europe does not have the means to change it into agas

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40
Q

What is happening to world coal production?

A

Europe’s coal production is decreasing steadily as it is running out and environmental pressures grow.
China (the world’s biggest producer and consumer of coal is slowing their rate of consumption, mostly due to the air pollution it creates - but in the 2000s production in Asia Skyrocketed from the rapid economic development it experienced

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41
Q

What is the general pattern of global production and consumption of minerals like?

A

The USA consumes 20-30% of worlds global minerals but produce only 5%
In the past 50 years, developed countries have depleted their stocks and have imported from developing nations
Developed nations like Canada and Australia with excess minerals have increased their supply to fill this gap.
Since the 21st century, Asian consumption of minerals has increased, China has overtaken USA as biggest consumer of steel in the mid 2000s, consuming 25% of all steel by 2010.

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42
Q

Why is China consuming more steel and other minerals?

A

To provide for it’s large construction and development projects, like the Three Gorges Dam
Copper to create a national grid infrastructure for electricity
Aluminum consumption to provide for its growing manufacturing industries - but they still remain behind the EU and US in this regard.

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43
Q

What event caused a decline in global trade of steel?

A

The end of the cold war meant less was needed for armaments

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44
Q

What has China done that has led to a decline in steel and other metals?

A

Since 2014, Chinese economic growth has started to slow and they are embarking on less investment projects - they moved from being a net importer to a net exporter

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45
Q

What 5 factors have affected the trading of mineral ores?

A
  • The inelasticity of certain metals with no substitute
  • Recession and decreasing growth rates
  • Falling prices mean less mining is occurring
  • Technological change has reduced cost and increased supply
  • Environmental concerns are discouraging exploration and exploitation leading to alternative, greener supplies
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46
Q

What are rare earth elements/metals?

A

Group of 17 elements that have similar properties that group them together in the periodic table. They tend to be together in abundant geological deposits, but once discovered they are often not viable to extract.

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47
Q

What are Rare earth Elements used in the production of?

A
  • Electronic devices
  • Catalytic converters
  • Earth magnets
  • EV’s Batteries
  • Wind turbines
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48
Q

What will likely happen to the demand for REEs?

A

Increase as they are used in increasingly popular green technologies like wind turbines and EVs

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49
Q

What has happened to the market for REE’s throughout time?

A

Demand for REEs exploded with colour TVs in the 1960s and the USA controlled the market until the 80s until China undercut the market with lower prices until 2010 where they now control 95% of the market.
In 2010 they began restricting the selling of REEs causing panic buying creating an exponential increase in price

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50
Q

What are abundant metals?

A

Metals like iron and aluminum that can be found and usually extracted easily

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51
Q

What are Precious metals?

A

Rare metals in short supply that don’t oxidise like gold, silver and platinum

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52
Q

What are base metals?

A

a common metal that is not considered precious, such as copper, tin, or zinc. They often oxidise or erode easily

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53
Q

What are ferrous metals?

A

A metal that can be mixed with Iron

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54
Q

What is the biggest determiner in Coal’s geopolitics?

A

The impact it has on environment/ Climate change

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55
Q

What is a recent example of coal geopolitics?

A

As China (50% consumption) consumes less coal, producing countries like Australia suffer -> Aus has exported more to India as their demand grows
With the lack of Russian gas, Many EU countries like Germany and Poland have consumed more coal to meet the demand for energy, TMT Europe will be seen as hypocritical when they ask developing nations to reduce their emissions.

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56
Q

What is a recent example of Oil geopolitics?

A

To meet with the need for oil as an energy source following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Biden went to the crown prince of Saudi Arabia to try persuading him to increase oil production despite Biden previously accusing him of authorising the murder of a Washington post Journalist.

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57
Q

What are the key issues facing minerals?

A
  • Geopolitics
  • Price volatility
  • Globalisation
  • Finite nature
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58
Q

What is the very general pattern for minerals?

A

Developing nations sell while developed nations buy (but developing nations demand is increasing).

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59
Q

What (regarding minerals) can create job losses in the UK and US?

A

The oversupply of cheap steel (dumping) from china flooding the market

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60
Q

What is neodymium?

A

A rare earth metal that is fairly abundant but difficult to get out of the ground. It is a part of the strongest magnet and the market for it is $11.3 billion

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61
Q

What is neodymium used for?

A
  • Cellphones, headphones and other electronics
  • Turbines
  • Phone vibrations
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62
Q

What is happening to the Neodymium market?

A

Demand is on the rise, but 80% of it comes from China and 15% from AUS.
The main US supply mountain pass mine in California has been almost depleted.
However, following a dispute with the west, China limited supply and the price of Neodymium doubled from $100,000 to $200,000 per metric ton from 2010-2011
This has encouraged the US to start rebuilding the rare earth industry (diversification) - reopening the mountain pass mine

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63
Q

What are the issues of mining Neodymium?

A

Neodymium is often found by radioactive thorium and uranium which could be brought up with it. This is hard to store and damaging for the environment.

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64
Q

What are transboundary river basins?

A

River basins that are in more than one country which can lead to conflict as to who extracts the water

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65
Q

What are transboundary aquifers?

A

Aquifers that are in more than one country which can lead to conflict as to who extracts the water

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66
Q

What are the three water dispute examples?

A
  • The Nile (Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia)
  • The Mekong River
  • The Tigris and Euphrates River (Iran)
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67
Q

Explain the transboundary dispute on the Nile river?

A

Ethiopia built the grand renaissance dam that is the largest HEP provider in Africa on the Blue Nile. This can restrict the volume of water accessible to Egypt and Sudan. In a drought Ethiopia could store water for itself as Egypt and Sudan miss out on water.

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68
Q

Explain the transboundary dispute on the Mekong river?

A

A series of 80 new dams are choking the flow of the Mekong river which sustains 60 million people. The water level is much lower, with much less life in due to lost nutrients

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69
Q

Explain the water dispute of the Euphrates and Tigris river?

A

This is the cradle of humanity where humans first lived, and the city of Basra in South Iran contributes to 80% of Iran’s economy, However this key city does not control the flow of water in the north which belongs in Turkey, only 20% of normal flows reach the Euphrates in Iran, following the US invasion and Islamic state conflict. this has created a slower flow and water from the Persian gulf has inundated the river water.

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69
Q

What are the seven sources of water?

A
  • Reservoirs
  • river Abstraction
  • Boreholes into the water table
  • Snow and Glacier melt
  • Desalinisation
  • Water re-use
  • Pumping from Aqufiers
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70
Q

What are reservoirs?

A

Manmade (but sometimes natural) lake used to supply water

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71
Q

Example of Reservoir as a source of water?

A

Welsh water obtains 95% of water from river abstraction or reservoirs thanks to the nation’s high rainfall and impermeable predominating rocks.

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72
Q

What are the disadvantages of reservoirs as a source of water?

A

Increased water loss from evaporation
lower flow rate downstream, particularly as reservoir is first filled
the reservoir may also silt up

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73
Q

What is river abstraction?

A

The removal of water from any source

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74
Q

Example of river abstraction?

A

Thames water serves london and the SE this way, with 70% of water coming from river abstraction

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75
Q

Negatives of river abstraction?

A

Reduces river volume and may return it as wastewater thus reducing qater quality

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76
Q

Negatives of river abstraction?

A

Reduces river volume and may return it as wastewater thus reducing water quality

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77
Q

What are boreholes into the water table?

A

Traditional wells sunk through permeable rock structures to penetrate the water table.

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78
Q

Example of Boreholes into the water table?

A

Thames water gets 30% of water through boreholes

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79
Q

Disadvantages of boreholes through the water table?

A

Lower water table can affect levels of usage
can affect natural habitats

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80
Q

Examples of Snow and glacier melt as a source of water?

A

60% of Iran’s freshwater for Urban industrial use and agriculture is from glacial melt
The gangs and Brahmaputra rivers flow across India from Glacial melt in the Himalayas

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81
Q

Disadvantages of Snow and Glacier melt as a source of water?

A

Climate change is causing glacial retreat and putting long term sustainability at risk

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82
Q

What is desalinisation?

A

Turning seawater into freshwater through (mostly) dual membrane osmosis.

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83
Q

Example of Desalinisation?

A

Israel produces nearly 40% of water through Desalinisation

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84
Q

Disadvantages of Desalinisation?

A

It is a very energy intensive (and therefore expensive) process.

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85
Q

Example of water re-use?

A

In the Valley of Mexico, 90% of all water used for irrigation is sourced from water re used from mexico city, which can also recharge groundwater supplies by irrigation

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86
Q

Disadvantages of Water re-use?

A

Much re-used water used is grey water and not potable (safe to drink)

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87
Q

What is pumping from aquifers?

A

Getting water from saturated rock below capped rock underlain by impermeable rock

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88
Q

Example of pumping from aquifers?

A

The Ogallala aquifer is the largest aquifer in the United States and stores as much water as lake Huron

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89
Q

Disadvantages of pumping from aquifers?

A

If water is abstracted faster than it is returned, aquifers will be depleted
Can create transboundary disputes
can lead to the salinsiation of soils if overused in areas with high evaporation rates.

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89
Q

Disadvantages of pumping from aquifers?

A

If water is abstracted faster than it is returned, aquifers will be depleted
Can create transboundary disputes
can lead to the salinsiation of soils if overused in areas with high evaporation rates.

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90
Q

What are the three factors affecting the quantity and quality of water availability?

A
  • Climate -> Precipitation patterns, Temperatures affecting evaporation
  • Geology -> Aquifers and the permeability of rocks
  • Drainage -> Relief of the land, type of soil etc.
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91
Q

Describe the basics of the Murray Darling basin?

A
  • Size of France and spain combined
  • Covers 14% of Australlia from Queensland to Victoria
  • Provides 75% of AUS water (85% of irrigation water)
  • All key cities on the west coast rely on it for water
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92
Q

What has happened to water abstraction in the Murray Darling basin and what has this led to?

A

River abstraction has increased by 5x since the1920s - matching population increase
This has permanently damaged the mouth of the Murray Basin.

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93
Q

What are the Physical factors affecting the Murray Darling Basin?

A
  • 480mm of rainfall annually
  • additional groundwater extraction from the basin
  • High evaporation on the Eastern edge of the Basin
  • El nino can bring significant changes in Rainfall
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94
Q

Explain the basics of the river Thames/Thames water basics?

A
  • Classed as having severe water stress, with the majority of easily accessible water supplies gone and having little spare capacity
  • supplies 16billion litres of water to over 9 million people with a growing demand (Londoners use 10% more water than the average UK citizen)
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95
Q

How is climate affecting the water Supply of the Thames Basin?

A
  • Average rainfall of 690mm (lower than the 900mm UK average)
  • only 250mm of rainfall is useful for the environment and the population
  • Frequent winter rainfall rather than storms allows for groundwater recharge over the winter months - it takes two below average winters for there to be a drought
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96
Q

How is climate affecting the water Supply of the Thames Basin?

A
  • Average rainfall of 690mm (lower than the 900mm UK average)
  • only 250mm of rainfall is useful for the environment and the population
  • Frequent winter rainfall rather than storms allows for groundwater recharge over the winter months - it takes two below average winters for there to be a drought
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97
Q

How does geology affect the supply of the Thames Basin?

A
  • The chalk surronding London provides base flow into the tributraries of the Thames and act as an aquifer
  • 1/3 of the water of the Thames basins is pumped directly from Boreholes
  • Many fountains use natural pressure to pump up
  • as more is abstracted from the Thames pumps have been getting deeper and more expensive - reaching more than 200m deep
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98
Q

How does drainage affect the water supply of the Thames Basin?

A
  • around 80% of London’s water is abstracted upstream from Teddington weir. The majority of London’s water is taken from aquifers, making groundwater the most important source. Tributaries arise from impermeable clay outcrops that result in overland flow.
  • The other 20% not abstracted is from groundwater from aquifers.
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99
Q

What is water security?

A

Having enough water of suitable quality to meet a nation’s various needs

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100
Q

How much of Global demand is taken up for each sector?

A

Agriculture = 70% of water use
Industry = 22%
Domestic = 8%

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101
Q

How much of global water is used in agriculture?

A

70%

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102
Q

How much of global water is used in industry?

A

22%

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103
Q

How much of global water is used in domestic use?

A

8%

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104
Q

What are the stages of water vulnerabillity?

A

Water vulnerabillity -> Water stress -> water scarcity -> Absolute scarcity

105
Q

How much water is consumed when a place is experiencing water vulnerability?

A

1700-2500cm3 per person per year

106
Q

How much water is consumed when a place is experiencing water stress?

A

1,000-1700cm3 per person per year

107
Q

How much water is consumed when a place is experiencing water scarcity?

A

> 1000cm3 per person per year

108
Q

How much water is consumed when a place is experiencing absolute scarcity?

A

<500cm3 per person per year

109
Q

What is potable water?

A

Water that is safe to drink and in food presentation without compromising health

110
Q

What are the 5 strategies to increase water supply?

A
  • Catchment
  • Storage
  • Water transfer
  • Desalinisation
  • Diversion
111
Q

How is storage a method of increasing water supply?

A

Through the construction of dams that facilitate water diversion water can be stored. Dams can be inflatable and impermanent to block water in the winter months and then diverted to fields for irrigation in the summer months/

112
Q

What is the example for water storage as a method of increasing water supply?

A

The Rubber dam across the Tankabati river in Bangladesh is a 5m high inflatable dam that helps deliver to irrigate the nearby rice fields

113
Q

How is catchement a method of increasing water supply?

A

Construction of more wetland areas like wetalnd restoration or reforestation allows more rainfall to be collected by natural sources.

114
Q

How is diversion a strategy used to increase water supply?

A

water can be removed or abstracted from its natural course by canal pipe or other conduit to increase supply in areas that need it. But this needs to be done very carefully to avoid any environmental damages.

115
Q

What are the examples of using diversion to increase water supply?

A
  • In California aloone water is divided at more than 25,000 points to supply for irrigation and Urban areas like LA
  • The Pont Du Gard Roman aqueduct was used to divert water from hills to the villages
116
Q

How is water transfer a method of increasing water supply?

A

Water can be transferred from areas of surplus to areas of deficit.

117
Q

What is an example of a water transfer supply?

A

The Kielder transfer scheme transfers water from Kielder water in Northumberland to London - it was originally supposed to supply to Sunderland but it was not needed in the area following the decline of Heavy industries there in the 60s and 70s

118
Q

How is desalinisation a method of increasing water supply?

A

Techniques like reverse osmosis and Thermal desalinisation allow large scale desalinisation of Seawaterr or brackish groundwater. But it has a high capital cost, is energy intensive and therefore expensive. It must also dispose of highly salinated products They have mainly been built on the coasts of the middle east where droughts are common.

119
Q

What are the examples of Desalinisation acting as a supply of water?

A
  • Sorek Desalinisation plant near Tel Aviv Israel was built in 2013 - costing $500 million USD but provides 20% of water consumed in Israel.
120
Q

What are the examples of Desalinisation acting as a supply of water?

A
  • Sorek Desalinisation plant near Tel Aviv Israel was built in 2013 - costing $500 million USD but provides 20% of water consumed in Israel.
121
Q

What is Groundwater?

A

Subsurface water that takes up 97% of all available freshwater. It is permentntly in the saturateeed zone wthin solid rocks - known as the Phreatic zone where all pore spaces are filled with water

122
Q

What is the example of a UK Aquifer?

A

The Chalk Aquifer which underlays much of southern/Easter England containing 200km3 of water

123
Q

What is the Groundwater balance formula?

A

Change in storage = Recharge in groundwater - discharge in grounwater

124
Q

What does grounwater recharge occur as a result of?

A
  • Infiltration of precipitation at the ground surface
  • Seepage through the banks and bed of surface water
  • Groundwater leekage and inflow from adjacent aquifers
  • Artficial recharge from aquifers and irrigation
125
Q

What does groundwater loss occur as a result of?

A
  • Evapotranspiration
  • Natural discharge by spring flow and seepage into surface water bodies
  • Groundwater leekage into adjacent aquifers
  • Artifical abstraction from wells and pumping
126
Q

What are the factors affecting groundwater quality?

A
  • Human activities
  • Pollution of grounwater
  • Industrial pollutants
127
Q

What is salinisation caused by (not by the oceans)?

A

A rising water table and the evaporation of irrigation water will leave behind salts

128
Q

What is Fossil groundwater?

A

Groundwater that is no longer being recharged e.g. Aquifers under the Sahara being extracted in Libya.

129
Q

How does urbanisation affect groundwater?

A

More surfaces become impermeable, Increasing runoff and reducing groundwater

130
Q

How does agriculture affect groundwater?

A

Groundwater used at a rapid pace to supply centre pivot schemes and more runoff and less infiltration occurs

131
Q

How does industry affect groundwater?

A

More acids, oils and solvents and heavy metals are discharged directly into groundwater.

132
Q

Why is Groundwater crucial in the Thames region?

A

Around 2.305billion litres a day is abstracted
accounts for 85% of Potable water
300 public supply sources
provides base flow to significant rivers
2/3 of Thames catchment is Permeable

133
Q

What are the issues affecting the Groundwater in the Thames region?

A
  • Flows in several rivers have been abstracted as a result of abstraction close to the headwaters along river valleys, greatly affecting the rivers Misbourne, Wey, Pang and Letcombe brook
134
Q

What are the issues affecting the Groundwater in the Thames region?

A
  • Flows in several rivers have been abstracted as a result of abstraction close to the headwaters along river valleys, greatly affecting the rivers Misbourne, Wey, Pang and Letcombe brook
  • Groundwater quality affected by Saline intrusions along the River Thames - as well as leakage from sewers and the use of solvent based chemicals
  • Rising Nitrate concentrations
  • Increased widespread findings of pesticides throughout the catchment
135
Q

What are the two fundemental methods of managing Groundwater?

A

Abstraction control and Pollution control

136
Q

How can abstraction be controlled?

A
  • declare groundwater a resource for use in a contorlled way
  • Issue licenses for groundwater abstraction
137
Q

What are the ways of managing pollution so it doesn’t affect groundwater quality?

A
  • Control ‘point sources’ like industrial areas and farms and manage and control them
  • identifiying diffuse sources like fertilisers and controlling them.
138
Q

What is gullying?

A

Water incising new channels in the land, washing away nutrients and creating soil erosion.

139
Q

Lesotho highlands water project basics?

A
  • Fully enclaved in SA and has an abundance of water due to their high elevation while SA does not
  • Most precipitation falls in the 7 month wet period from October to April
  • The Maluti mountains cover 18,000km and is the source of the Orange river and its tributaries
  • Lesotho consumes just 2 cumecs of water in comparison to the 1500 cumecs available
140
Q

What is the Lesothohighlands water project a case study for (2)?

A

water transfer scheme (international)
Environmental impacts of a water supply scheme

141
Q

When was the Lesotho highlands water project agreement signed?

A

Signed in October 1986 and was widely welcomed by both parties as

142
Q

What did the Lesotho highlands water project agreement agree?

A

Sa would pay the water transfer costs + the water itself, whilst Lesotho would pay for the HEP stations
- 5 dams to be constructed
- 200km of tunnels
- water pumping and transfer stations

143
Q

Why is Lesotho’s environment under threat?

A

Lesotho’s main economic activity (subsistence farming) was at threat due to steep slops, fragile soils and unreliable rainfall
Unplanned settlements and subsistence farming mean there is great pressure on the land.

144
Q

Why was Lesotho not orignally protected?

A

EIA’s were only in place since phase 1B and environemntal concerns were only taken seriously then - causing irreparable damage

145
Q

What arethe 5 environmental impacts of the lesotho Highlands water project?

A
  • Loss of farm land
  • Reduced access to natural resources
  • Habitat destruction
  • Downstream damage
  • Soil erosion
146
Q

How has the LWHP caused a loss of farmland?

A

The Mohale region (the only region with an agricultural surplus) has been taken over by the project. less than 10% of land is suitable for farming so food stress is already high particularly as 2/3 of people rely on local food - the new homes built to accommodate those displaced from the floods have far less food available.

147
Q

How has the LHWP reduced access to natural resources?

A

Reduced access to woodlands, medicines, vegetables and grazing lands have occurred as a result of flooding - with the problem exacerbated by the dams themselves acting as a barrier for the movement of people and cattle, creating poverty issues.

148
Q

How has the LHWP led to habitat destruction?

A

Species like the Maluti minnow and bearded vultures are having their habitats destroyed - it also threatens ecosystems downstream.

149
Q

How has the LHWP created downstream damage?

A

Projected has reduced the availability of water downstream, reducing wetland habitats, fisheries and more. It has reduced flooding downstream which is negative as less sediment (full of nutrients) is being distributed - this decreases oxygen and nutrient levels and changes in water temperatures. Many species rely on these changes to survive.

150
Q

How has the LHWP led to soil erosion?

A

The dams and associated infrastructure (power lines) have contributed to soil erosion. Poorly designed culverts and roads have force funnel runoff and force farmers to plough against the contours of the slope which further accelerates soil erosion. Also forced farmers to farm increasingly marginal land without the neccesary knowledge of suitable and sustainable farming techniques.

151
Q

What is virtual water?

A

The hidden levels of water use.

152
Q

What is the UK’s water footprint and virtual water footprint?

A

150 litres a day -> increases to 4645 litres a day

153
Q

What was the UK’s water footrpint now compared to 1830?

A

Up from 18 litres of water a day to 150 litres

154
Q

What are the 3 main strategies to manage water consumption?

A

Food consumption
water conservation
water meters

155
Q

How can food consumption manage water supply?

A

responsible food retailers are beginning to import food from areas not currently suffering from water stress.
Food diets could change - instead of eating out of season goods, eat domestic vegetables. It could also involve eating fruit and veg like broccoli that are more salt and drought tolerant.
However, foods may need to be imported in winter to keep up with demand

156
Q

How can water conservation manage water supply?

A

Emerging tech and traditional methods can save water. E.g. energy effficeint dishwashers and drying machines use less water than washing by hand. Lifestyle choices like deciding to shower rather than baths, or planting drought resistant plants in the garden.
However, These techniques are expensive and can be purchased mainly by the rich - therefore it is not a holistic solution.

157
Q

How can water meters manage water supply?

A

Water meters mean you only pay for the water you use, forcing the user to think more efficiently about their water usage. The average UK resident reduces water consumption by 10-15% upon installing a water meter.
However, large households may not install one a it means they will likely pay more than the flat rate they are typically offered.

158
Q

What are the ways to manage water sustainably?

A
  • Greywater recycling
  • Rainwater collection recycling
  • Groundwater management
159
Q

What is diffuse pollution?

A

When small amounts of pollution are washed into a wide water catchment. These are widespread and difficult to spot and making them more significant than individual pollutants. They could be:
- Agricultural runoff
- Oil + chemicals from cars
- Sewage + factory chemicals

160
Q

How is Greywater recycling a way to manage water sustainably?

A

Greywater is dirty domestic water excluding sewage with 1/3 of it being wasted when it can be cleaned and pumped back into the water system.
However, Greywater recycling is expensive and as a result the main users of these systems are often hotel and leisure companies that consume lots of water.

161
Q

How does rainwater collection recycling a way to manage water sustainably?

A

Rainwater harvesting systems collect water from roofs and divert it to pipes for use. This water will likely contain less bacteria than greywater with fewer contaminants. this makes it a very cheap and effective option.

162
Q

How is groundwater management a way to manage water sustainably?

A

Groundwater supplies 30% of freshwater. Abstraction licenses can be issued and consumption levels can be maintained. In England, the environment agency charges license holders to ensure water resources are managed effectively and sustainably.

163
Q

What are water conflicts usually managed by/through?

A

The Berlin accords

164
Q

What are the reasons water conflicts are likely to become more common?

A
  • Climate change creating changing patterns of precipitation and evapotranspiration (droughts)
  • Increasing populations
  • Increasingly wealthy global populations will be using more water in their daily lives.
165
Q

What are the three different scales and case studies on water conflicts?

A

Local = Tulare country CA
regional = Las vegas and the great basin aquifer
international = River Nile

166
Q

Explain the water conflict on the river nile?

A

Source of the blue nile is in the Ethiopian higlands. As they develop, they are turning to HEP. Ethiopia is building the Grand renaissance dam on the blue Nile. Becuase the nile crosses international boundaries, this construction project can lead to water supplies in Egypt to be depleted downstream.
Dam started construted in 2011, it is expected to provide water to 65 electricity to 65 million people who do not have it. there was a 1959 agreement that agreed nothing should built upstream of the nile without the permission of egypt and Sudan - with Ethiopia being left out.

167
Q

Explain the local water conflict in Tulare county California?

A

There is a water crisis because to sustain LA, water was diverted away from owens lake -> this then dried out and created dust pollution as well as sprinklers put in place to prevent it (costed $1.5 billion)
There is conflict between the people of owens valley and LA, as well as the major corporate firms who have the money to exract water deep within the groundwater.

168
Q

What is energy security?

A

A country that has a a secure and reliable source of energy to meet their needs

169
Q

What is a primary source of energy?

A

Energy sources obtained in their natural state e.g. coal, oil, nuclear, gas

170
Q

What is a secondary source of energy?

A

Converted from primary sources into manufactured sources (electricity) e.g. solar, wind, geothermal

171
Q

Explain the issues associated with coal as a energy source?

A

Releases areosoles that can create repository problems
Releases GHGs that contribute to climate change
Finite (stock resource)
Heavy and difficult to transport

172
Q

Explain the patterns of consumption and production for coal?

A

China is the world’s biggest producer and consumer
the belt between 30-60 degrees North across Eurasia contains 70% of global coal
Their is a declining use in older industrial economies, but is growing again in eastern Europe due to the lack of Russian gas
Massive increase of coal use in India and China to fund large scale investment projects (Australia involved)

173
Q

Explain the issue with oil as an energy source?

A

Finite and non renewable
Releases GHG and CC but is often preferable to coal
Can lead to oil spills which are damaging to wildlife

174
Q

Explain the patterns of consumption and production for oil?

A

OPEC members produce 75% of all oil
It has recently been found in the USA off Prudhoe bay Alaska and the gulf of mexico

175
Q

Explain the issue with gas as an energy source?

A

Must be transferred by pipeline (expensive, but still more clean and flexible than other fossil fuels)
Sometimes transported through LPG which much of the EU doesn’t have the capacity to accept

176
Q

Explain the patterns of consumption and production of gas?

A

Leading producers are Russia, USA, China and Canada, busiest pipelines are the trans alaskan pipeline and Nord stream 1
Becoming increasingly sought after as china are attempting to move away from coal

177
Q

Explain the issues of nuclear as a source of energy?

A

Expensive and large capital start up costs
Waste radiation must be stored for 1000s of years
Nuclear disasters like Chernobyl or Fukushima can create large exclusion zones

178
Q

Explain the patterns of consumption and production of nuclear energy?

A

1/5 of US energy is nuclear
Kazakhstan produces over 40% Of the world’s uranium
nuclear usage increased 10x from the 1950s to the 1960s

179
Q

What are the issues of solar as a source of energy?

A

Only efficient in areas with high sunlight areas
intermittent
Visual pollution and takes up room for arable or pastoral farming

180
Q

Example of a solar farm?

A

Shotwick solar park in flintshire produces 72MWP

181
Q

Explain the issues of wind as a source of energy?

A

INtermittent
Only works in windy locations
visual pollutions
kills birds and marine life

182
Q

Example of a windfarm?

A

Thanet offshore windfarm off the coast of Kent

183
Q

Explain the issues of biomass as a source of energy?

A

Not a completely clean source of energy as there is the emission of methane during combustion
High cost compared to other alternatives
requires lots of water

184
Q

Explain the patterns of consumption and production of biomass?

A

Mainly a source of energy in LICs, particularly in rural areas
Biomethane production is notable in Nepal and Brazil
Example is Drax power station in North Yorkshire which produces 6% of the UK’s energy requirements

185
Q

Explain the issues of HEP as a source of energy?

A

Can only been done in mountainous areas
High capital costs
Dams and reservoirs can have extensive environmental damage and affect the flow of water downstream

186
Q

Example of HEP source?

A

Dinorwig (thunder mountain) in wales or Chambamontera

187
Q

Explain the issues of tidal energy as a source of power?

A

Wind and weather dependent (intermittent)
High construction and maintenance cost
Not yet commercially viable
potentially damaging effects on marine life

188
Q

How does tidal energy work?

A

Oscillating waves force air into a chamber that turns a turbine

189
Q

Example of where tidal energy is used ?

A

Some areas outside the western isles and orkney that have a large fetch have some tidal energy farms

190
Q

What are the issues associated with geothermal energy?

A

High installations costs
Only a limited number of installable locations (must be constructed in areas of high geothermal activity)

191
Q

Example of A geothermal energy complex?

A

The Geysers geothermal complex, California is the world’s largest geothermal field and powers up to 900,000 homes by pumping water down to volcanically heated sub surface rocks to create steam and geothermal electricity

192
Q

What components make up demand for energy?

A

Industrial (+ agriculture)
Domestic
Transports

193
Q

Explain the general pattern associated with economic development and energy demand?

A

As a country gets richer it will use more energy per capita
NIC’s consumption is growing rapidly but production is slowing down
HIC’s have a much lower industrial usage than NIC’s

194
Q

What is the energy mix?

A

THe different sources a country uses to meet its energy needs

195
Q

What is happening/has happened to the UK’s energy mix?

A

UK does not use oil for energy as there is only about 30 years left and it is becoming more expensive
UK’s coal usage is going down due to climate agreements (although new coal mine cumbmria because of Russia)
Natural gas is being used more for domestic uses and for electricity as it tends to be slightly cleaner than coal as an energy source
Bio energy, renewables and biomass have increased as they become more efficient

196
Q

What are the three main geographical conditions affecting energy supply?

A

Geology
Drainage systems
Climate

197
Q

How does geology affect energy supply?

A

The type of coal underlaying the land is important (Lignite low quality, Anthracite high quality) a coal seam near the surface is ideal as it it cheaper to open cast coal mine than shaft mining
Natural gas and oil requires a cap of impermeable shale rock/geological reservoir to store it after organic hydrocarbons were compressed millions of years ago.

198
Q

What are the four types of coal and their quality?

A
  • Lignite (low grade 65-70% carbon)
  • Sub bituminous coal (70-76% carbon)
  • Bituminous coal (70-86% carbon)
  • Anthracite (86-98% pure carbon, high grade)
199
Q

explain two examples where coal type has affected energy supply?

A

In Australlia, lots of coal seams are found very close to the surface, meaning cheaper open cast mining can occur, creating cheap Australlian coal
Welsh coal is Anthracite and of high quality, but it is now too deep to mine with disjointed seams which have made it too expensive to extract

200
Q

What are the two types of geological traps oil/gas is stored in?

A

Structural traps (trapped due to their shape which is a deformity in the earth’s crust)
Stratigraphic traps (trapped between rock layers)

201
Q

Explain fracking and its growing importance?

A

Fracking is the mining of oil and gas in the pores of shale by increasing the permeabillity of the shale by pumping water under high pressure to fracture the rock.
Economic pressures on fuel price have prompted increased fracking demand which has made possible resources -> measured resources

202
Q

What are the 3 aspects of climate affecting energy supplies?

A

Wind
solar power
tidal forces

203
Q

What are the conditions affecting the use of wind as a source of energy?

A
  • Air density
  • prevailing winds
  • Wind speed, at least 7-10 mph needed for energy generation, between 25-55 for a rated speed, anything abouve 50-80mph may need to be cut off to avoid potential turbine damage
204
Q

What are the conditions affecting the use of solar as a source of energy?

A

Further north and south means less sun
Solar exposure is better at higher reliefs as the air is thinner and scatters less sunlight

205
Q

What are heliostats?

A

Heliostats are a way to concentrate solar power, they do this by directing panels of sunlight to a central reciever, which often becomes so hot the heat it generates can still generate the electricity at night.

206
Q

How do drainage systems affect energy supplies?

A

A dam must be high enough for gravity to substantially affect the flow of water, with a steep enough penstock to rotate the turbine, TMT there needs to be:
- High and constant levels of rainfall
- Steeper sided narrow valleys
- stable valley sides

207
Q

What are penstocks?

A

The angle at which water flows down from the high reservoir into the low reservoir (the area of a dam where water is transferred)

208
Q

What equation determines the power a HEP station generates?

A

Power = Head x flow x gravity

209
Q

What are two aspects of globalisation that is affecting energy supply?

A
  • Competing national interests
  • The role of TNC’s
210
Q

What are current competing interests regarding energy supply?

A
  • Euro dependence on middle eastern oil
  • Asian dependence on gulf oil
  • China developing oi reserves in Africa
  • The US developing more tight and unconventional reserves
  • Natural gas remaining the fastest growing energy reserve
  • Russia expanding exports of oil to the China, Japan and Korea through the East Siberian Pacific Ocean pipeline
211
Q

What are the role of TNC’s in Energy supply?

A

Very powerful TNCs like Royal Dutch shell dominate the oil trade, often funding development projects and presidential campaigns, ultimately allowing them to influence governments and controlling economic coordination. They are typically in control in all stages of exploration, production and distribution

212
Q

What is the case study of the impacts of Globalisation (TNCs) on energy supply?

A

Royal Dutch Shell

213
Q

What is the case study for the environmental impacts of a major energy source (and associated infrastructure) ?

A

Athabasca Tar sands

214
Q

What are the ways to manage energy supply?

A

Oil and Gas exploration
Nuclear power
Development of Nuclear resources

215
Q

What is the case study on evaluating the benefits and negatives of Nuclear power?

A

Hinkley point C, Somerset

216
Q

What are the two main sustainability issues of energy use?

A

Burning of fossil fuels and their impacts (420 ppm in atmosphere)
acid rain

217
Q

How much CO2 is currently in the Atmosphere?

A

420 parts per million of CO2

218
Q

How does acid rain form?

A

Bituminous coal has impurities and Sulphur inside, TMT when it is burnt SO2 is released into the atmosphere where it combines with water to create sulphuric acid.

219
Q

What are the impacts of Acid rain ?

A

Rainwater has a Ph of 7 while acid rain has a ph of 4,5,6, so it damages vegetation by attacking the bedrock underneath, which causes trees to absorb trace elements of aluminum, causing an overload of nutrients where they poising themselves and then die.
It can also make water toxic to crayfish and clams and other marine animals.

220
Q

How did the USA attempt to reduce the threat of acid rain in the 1980s?

A

Applied a cap and trade policy, which provided an allowance which could be sold to other power companies to ensure profits for energy companies while limiting sulphur emissions.

221
Q

List some examples of energy conservation?

A

Car sharing
Public transport
taxation on energy prices
vehicle excise duty (pay more if using environmentally damaging vehicles)
Cycle to work schemes
Smart meters
Solar panels
Insulation
Double glazing

222
Q

What is an ore?

A

An ore is a type of rock a mineral is found in, which later needs to be extracted. A high grade ore has a higher percentage of mineral within the ore.

223
Q

What is the mineral security case study?

A

Copper

224
Q

What is the role of copper in global commerce?

A

The consumption of copper has increased greatly in the past 20 years, with the mergence of large TNCs like Freeport and Newmount.
Currently supply is greater than demand, with 40% of this demand being met with recycled copper, TMT copper prices have been falling since 2011.

225
Q

What are the four main categories of geological formation of copper?

A

Magmatic
Hydrothermal
Metamorphic
Sedimentary deposits

226
Q

What factors determine whether copper can be mined?

A

Access to markets and processing facilities
Remoteness
Economic viability

227
Q

What physical factors are affecting the nature (deep underground or open-pit) of a copper mine?

A

Shape, size, quantity, quality + grade.
In recent years there has been a shift from underground mining to open pit mining, as copper prices have been falling since 2011

228
Q

What factors affect the economic viability of copper?

A

Overburden, water removal, depth, stripping ratio, cut off value and grade

229
Q

What is the stripping ratio of copper?

A

The amount of waste relative to the amount mined

230
Q

What is the cut off grade?

A

The lowest ore purity/grade that can be exploited economically

231
Q

List an example of a natural disaster relating to copper mining?

A

Chilean mine disaster

232
Q

Cut off grade of copper?

A

2% purity

233
Q

What are the sources of copper (what is it found in) ?

A

Found in igneous rocks as hypothermal deposits and sedimentary rocks
The three main ores copper is found in are Bornite, Malachite and chalcopyrite.

234
Q

What are the size of global copper reserves?

A

1.6 bn tonnes and 0.bn in deep sea mines

235
Q

Which region of the would produces 45% of copper?

A

The Andean region of SA produces 45% of global copper, with the largest producer being Chile

236
Q

Who is the largest consumer of copper and what are the components of demand?

A

The largest consumer is China, with the components of demand being:
Transport
Equipment
Infrastructure
Construction

237
Q

What makes copper a useful metal?

A

Ductile
Strong and Malleable
Corrosion resistant
Good conductor of heat and electricity

238
Q

What is copper used in?

A

Ornamental use
Chemical production
Electricity
Water and other liquid pipelines

239
Q

What are some examples of new frontier hydrocarbons which may be exploited?

A

Foinaven oil field west of Shetland
Arctic national wildlife park next to Prudhoe bay Alaska (and Arctic in general)

240
Q

What are some domestic methods of reducing energy consumption?

A
  • Less use of ovens
  • LED lightbulbs
  • Less central heating usage
  • Insulate and drought proof homes
  • Better use of appliances (cutting shower times from 8-4 mins can save £70 on energy)
  • Smart meters
  • Public transport
  • WFH
241
Q

How can improving tech improve and extend the supply of metals?

A
  • More cost effective exploration to find more deposits
  • advanced machinery and extraction methods can create larger reserves
  • Improved efficiency of recycling methods
  • Substitution of alternative materials to expand the life span of many metals
242
Q

What is a recent environmental disaster to do with mineral extraction (sustainability of mineral extraction)

A

2014 copper sulphate acid spill in the sonora river

243
Q

Describe what happened at the sonora river copper sulphate spill in 2014?

A

on August 2014, 40,000m3 of copper sulphate and spilt into the sonora river, mexico and nearby public waterways.
Heavy rainfall caused tailings ponds to flood and contaminated water sources creating water shortages in an area already experiencing water stress, posing a threat to the food chain and people’s wellbeing

244
Q

What are the 5 main impacts of mineral extraction on sustainabillity?

A
  • Land use change
  • Pollution
  • Water turbidity
  • Toxic Lechates
  • Soil disposal
245
Q

Explain The impacts of land use change during the extraction of Minerals, and what measures can be taken to improve sustainability?

A

Large areas of land are required for the mine itself, esp. open pit mining
this creates habitat loss and a loss of biodiversity.
Restoration plans by relocating native species to the area or habitat restoration through native fauna

246
Q

Explain The impacts of pollution during the extraction of Minerals, and what measures can be taken to improve sustainability?

A

Noise pollution generated by machinery disturbs wildlife, dust pollution caused by vehicles and blasting
Baffle mounds can be constructed around the periphery of open pit mines that help to absorb and deflect some of the noise
dust pollution can be reduced using water sprays.

247
Q

Explain The impacts of water turbidity during the extraction of Minerals, and what measures can be taken to improve sustainability?

A

particles and silt from mines blocks sunlight from aquatic plants and chokes filter feeding animals
Holding lagoons can help suspended soils to settle and clear water that can then enter rivers

248
Q

Explain The impacts of toxic leachates during the extraction of Minerals, and what measures can be taken to improve sustainability?

A

Chemicals or tooxic materials unearthed can become soluble and drain into nearby rivers, harming wildlife
Toxic metals are more soluble when acidic, so passing drainage water through a filter of crushed limestone can immoblise some toxic materials

249
Q

Explain The impacts of soil disposal during the extraction of Minerals, and what measures can be taken to improve sustainability?

A

Soil is often loosely compacted when disposed and can create potential for landslides.
This can be solved through drainage pipes at the vase of soil heaps that prevents waterlogging and reduces landslide risk

250
Q

What are the three stages of mineral extraction that associated with sustainabillity issues?

A
  • Extraction
  • Processing
  • Trade
251
Q

What factors can make the trading of minerals more sustainable?

A

Comparative advantage of different countries can foster the development of a mutually beneficial and more sustainable mineral trade

252
Q

What did the World economic forum release in 2009 regarding the trading of minerals?

A

The mining and metals scenarios to 2030 that presented 3 future scenarios

253
Q

What 3 future scenarios did the WEF’s mining and minerals scenario to 2030 present?

A
  • Green trade alliance -> Most sustainable scenario wherein a GTA invloves developed and developinh countries transporting minerals cross borders
  • Rebased globalism -> Suggests an evolution of the economic envrionment, where economic power is held jointly between markets with the highest demand, this may involve the role and mindset of TNCs
  • Resource security - > Least sustainable secnario, based on the premise of national self interest. Countries hoard resources and trade blocs form with similar ideologies or ai. Protectionist measures restrict trade.
254
Q

How can processing of minerals become more sustainable?

A

Recycling of old scrap metal from industrial processes.

255
Q

How can minerals be recycled and what is a successful example of this?

A

Recycling old scrap metal from industrial processes contribute to the ‘end of life’ stocks of minerals that can be used in new materials. The Agenda 21 commitment has succesfully led to the collection of lead - used in lead acid batteries to become much more efficient

256
Q

What did UNEP estimate the end of recycling rates were for Iron and steel, Copper, Tin?

A

Iron and steel = 70-90% recycled
Copper = 40-50% recycled
Tin = 90% recycled

257
Q

Why was increasing the use of secondary resources as a source of production for new materials (recycling) proved a challenge?

A
  • A large portion of metals end up built into infrastructure where they remain in the long term
  • Some metals end up in very complex products combined with other materials or minerals that inhibit recycling
258
Q

What are the implications of an increasin population on the future of energy sources?

A
  • Coal could reamin important, while natural gas and oil usage falls as resources are depleted
  • INcrease ni Carbon clea n technologies
  • Average energy use per capita to decline as indivuduals attain to ecome more energy efficient
  • Changes woll not be uniform and there may be a growing gap between rich and poor countries
259
Q

What technology could replace the use of fossil fuel?

A

Hydrogen is a high density fuel that can be used to replaced fossil fuels, it uses only hydrogen and oxygen and is pollution free.

260
Q

What are the main usage of hydrogen in the ‘hydrogen economy’?

A
  • To produce and store surplus energy of water by electrolysis of water, converting H2O into H2 and O release energy
  • Combustion, hydrogen can be used a svehicle fuel for domestic/industrial heating
  • Used as chemical energy to make hydrocarbons which can then be used as fuel
261
Q

What is an example of a nation using alternative technologies regarding energy?

A

Iceland is becoming the world’s first ‘hydrogen economy’ by using geothermal energy to produce pure hydrogen

262
Q

What are the issues of using hydrogen as a fuel ?

A
  • Electrolysis is energy intensive, and can negate the positive environmental effects of hydrogen if powered by a fossil fuel.
  • Hydrogen cannot becompressed easily or safely

Human Geography (6 decks)

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