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Human Geography > Global Systems and Global Governance > Flashcards

Global Systems and Global Governance Flashcards

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1
Q

What are some of the many dimensions of globalisation?

A
  • Flows of capital
  • Labour
  • Products
  • Services and information
  • Global marketing
  • Patterns of production
  • Distribution
  • Consumption
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2
Q

What is Globalisation?

A

Globalisation is the process in which national and regional economies, societies and cultures have become integrated through the global network of trade, communication, immigration and transportation

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3
Q

What are the 5 flows of globalisation?

A
  • Flow of capital
  • Flow of Labour
  • Flow of goods and services
  • Flow of information and marketing
  • Patterns of production, consumption and distribution
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4
Q

What is the flow of capital?

A

The movement of money between countries for investments, trade or production.

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5
Q

List an example of the increasing flow of capital through globalisation?

A

Margaret Thatcher’s deregulation of the London stock exchange and the ensuing ‘big bang’ of 1986 which meant nations were no longer restricted by international boundaries

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6
Q

Explain Frank and Wallerstein’s core-periphery model?

A

Frank and Wallerstein’s core-periphery model distinguishes between a global core and global periphery, wherein the global core is where power in concentrated in a area of relatively powerful and developed nations. Periphery nations are less developed and have suffered from a lack of investment, exploitation which have been worsened by leakages and outwards migration

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7
Q

What is the drawback of Frank and Wallerstein’s core-periphery model?

A

The model has become largely outdated, with the rapid growth of BRICs and MINT nations.

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8
Q

What are all the flows of capital?

A

Foreign direct investment (FDI)
Repatriation of profits
Aid
Migration
Remittances

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9
Q

What is FDI?

A

investment made by TNCs or government into the physical capital or assets of another country

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10
Q

What is the repatriation of profits?

A

TNCs investing in overseas production will take back any profits to the country of their headquarters, called an economic leakage

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11
Q

What is aid?

A

Can be the multilateral (UN) or by a number of richer countries ODA (official development assistance) or bilaterally from one nation to another. This aid can come in the form of food, relief or capital in times of disaster by NGOs

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12
Q

What is migration as a flow of capital?

A

Outmigration happens from poorer -> Richer countries. This can exacerbate inequalities as poor nations lose their skilled labour and pay money into their destination countries.
Although they may send back remittances.

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13
Q

What are remittances?

A

Transfers of money made by foreign workers in their families back to their home countries. These can often be the second most important source of finance in developing countries, with FDI being the most notable)

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14
Q

What is happening to flows of Labour?

A

Labour flows are not as free flowing as other flows due to immigration controls. However numbers of international migrants are increasing as they seek better employment prospects for cheaper travel prices. This is an issue because international migrants are often not the poorest within a society, but those with some education.

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15
Q

What are the main/general migrant flows?

A
  • Developing countries in south Asia, Africa, Latin America and war torn nations are travelling to richer areas like the EU or US
  • Migration to oil rich gulf states are increasing where the construction boom has provided plentiful employment opportunities.
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16
Q

Explain current developments of the flows of products?

A
  • Transportation costs have reduced by investments in flows of data and increased ease of capital transfers
  • Transport times and costs reduced by containerization and increasing efficiency of air travel
  • development of WTO has meant less tariffs have greatly improved the flow of trade.
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17
Q

What is the difference between high level and low level services?

A

High level services = Services to businesses like finances, investments and marketing - this is often concentrated in hubs like London and Tokyo, with growing trans national conglomerates emerging globally e.g. HSBC
Low level services = Services to consumers such as bankers, travel and tourism, customer call centers or communication services - These are moving from developed to developing countries. Many of these services are footloose and can be served to anyone, anywhere, anytime

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18
Q

How has digitisation and satellite technology impacted the flows of information and marketing?

A
  • Improvements to global telephone networks
  • Mobile communication technology
  • Email and the internet
  • Live media coverage on a global on a scale because of satellite technology
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19
Q

What is the emergence of global marketing?

A

When a company becomes a global marketer, it views the world as a single market and creates products that fit various regional differences, generating marketing economies of scale.

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20
Q

What are the 4 TIGER economies?

A

Taiwan
Singapore
South Korea
Hong Kong

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21
Q

Why has the decentralization of production occurred?

A

95% of manufacturing was concentrated in EU, US and Japan in 1954, but due to FDI, TNC’s and lower land and labour costs in conjunction with governmental incentives, there has been a global shift of production and manufacturing abroad

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22
Q

What is the consequence of the decentralization of production on the developing world?

A
  • Manufacturing has fallen by 50% in the developed world since 1983, but this decline has steadied and productivity is increasing again
  • More than 50% of manufacturing jobs are located in developing countries
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23
Q

What are the factors (other than lower costs) that affect the location choice of a business?

A
  • Availability of skilled workforce
  • Government incentives
  • Access to large markets
  • Access to most modern plants and most productive technologies
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24
Q

What are forecasts suggesting will happen to distribution and consumption?

A
  • Consumption will drive trade patterns more than production to grow trade routes in India and China
  • Asia becoming more competitive with a greater share of their exports going to other Asian nations
  • Western companies specializing in finance will benefit from the development of financial services in the east Asian region.
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25
Q

What are the factors influencing globalisation?

A
  • New technologies, communications and information systems
  • Global financial systems
  • Transport systems
  • Security
  • Trade agreements
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26
Q

How does new technologies, communications and information systems influence globalisation?

A

Information can be shared easily and quickly to billions of people
Mobile phones allow LIC’s to connect to other people and markets and trade using E/M commerce.
63.1% of the population (5 billion) now are internet users

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27
Q

How are global financial systems influencing globalisation?

A

Banks and financial services are linked across the world that allows the flow of lending and money
however leads to increased interdependence, making economies more vulnerable to global economic recessions

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28
Q

How have transport systems influenced globalisation?

A

Global transport network allows the movement of people and goods across vast distances, creating new opportunities and threates like the spread of diesease through transport

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29
Q

How has security influenced globalisation?

A

Traditional security measure have reduced in relative significance
High profile leaks of sensitive papers have brought cybersecurity to greater prominence.

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30
Q

How have trade agreements influenced globalisation?

A

WTO has liberalized trade by reducing tariffs and other customs barriers.

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31
Q

What are trade blocs and their significance?

A

Trade blocs and agreements ease the restrictions of trade between countries both bilaterally and multinationally, increasing economic interdependency, often creating worse recessions.

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32
Q

List some Trade blocs/ free trade areas?

A

EU - European Union
ASEAN - Association of South East Asian nations
OPEC - Organisation of Petroleum exporting countries
MERCOSUR - (South America)
NAFTA - North American Free Trade Association

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33
Q

List some other organizations linked with global trade?

A

WTO - aims to reduce tariff barriers
OECD - organization for economic cooperation + development is a global think tanks of the world’s 30 wealthiest nations
G7 - 7 countries that represent 65% of world trade
G20 - G7 in addition to 12 others and world bank + IMF representatives
World Bank - Promotes investment globally and provides loans for nations under certain conditions
IMF - International monetary fund standardizes global financial relations to create stability by encouraging global trade and enforcing privitisation if needed.

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34
Q

How has transport contributed to globalisation?

A
  • Larger aircraft and integrated air traffic networks
  • Use of standardised containers (Containerisation)
  • Improved handling and distribution efficiency
  • Increased low cost airlines and air freight companies
  • computerised logistics systems
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35
Q

What is containerisation?

A

A standardised system of the transfer of goods around the world, all containers are the same size and all connect with the sane locks, allowing a good to be travelled around the world efficiently

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36
Q

How has security contributed to globalisation?

A

Higher security = reduced globalisation but more safety
lower security = greater safety risk, but more globalisation

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37
Q

What globalised things have been done to prevent security threats?

A
  • initiatives like the world customs organisation and the EU’s secure operator
  • response to terrorism has tightened security benefitting businesses but this has sometimes led to the disruption of trade and shipping delays
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38
Q

Describe the distribution of employment sectors?

A

Globalisation has meant most primary and secondary Labour jobs have been concentrated in SEA Asia and NEEs while HIC’s have shifted to the tertiary and quaternary sectors

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39
Q

What are the 5 case studies to show whether a country is benefitting or suffering from the effects of globalisation?

A
  • Ugnada and Global systems
  • China and the Internet
  • Nigeria and the negative impacts of primary product dependency
  • Exploitation of resources Zambia
    -Tata steel in the UK
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40
Q

What are the three main institutions linking to globalisation?

A

IMF
WTO
World Bank

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41
Q

Describe the Basics of the world bank?

A
    • Founded 1944 in new hampshire with the aim of rebuilding the EU and Japan after WW2
  • consists of 189 countries who aim to reduce poverty and and increase sahred prosperity
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42
Q

How does the World Bank enbale inequality to develop

A
  • Lend money to governments to improve standards fo living but at high interest rates
  • The few nations who are excluded from the world bank are not included
  • Must be an IMF member to join which requires a sum of money (however this is based on a % of a nations wealth so fair)
  • If governments loans are provided to are corrupt, they may be used to increase inequality
  • Tax reforms under structural government changes have often meant tax cuts for the wealthy that increase inequality
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43
Q

What are the advantages of the world bank?

A
  • Grants can help a nation develop and grow
  • Provides investment to improve QoL
  • Works cloesly with partners to achieve safewater and sanitation globally
  • Helps employ policies intended to maximise trade within a nation
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44
Q

What are the disadvantages of the World Banks?

A
  • Tax reforms under structural government changes have often meant tax cuts for the wealthy that increase inequality
  • Cuts in public sector spending often leads to increased unemployment
  • Various NGOs have taken over govermental functions in many social
  • Deregulation has made it easier for NGOs to profit abroad
  • Richer countries are granted more power over poorer ones through the world bank
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45
Q

Describe an example of the world bank at work?

A
  • During COVID pandemic set up an algorithm to detect high risk places for COVID infection, donated $40 million to kinhasa and $54 million to Cairo
  • Providede $1 billion in lending to India for their solar power projects (incl solar roofs) to deliver electriity to millions and reduce GHG reliance
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46
Q

Describe the basics of the IMF?

A
  • Established in 1944 in Washington DC
  • Has $1 trillion in lending money to member states, allowing them to offer loans to member states in times of crises - with fundscoming from an entrance fee
  • Aims to foster global financial global stabillity and sustainable growth
  • has 190 member states
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47
Q

How does the IMF allow inequality to develop?

A
  • Often makes nations privitise to encourage growth
  • Borrowed money can reach corrupt governments where money is spent inefficiently and increases inequality
  • Imposed tarriffs on some countries to help other exporting countries can negatively impact free trade
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48
Q

What are the advantages of the IMF?

A
  • Gives members economic policies
  • Helps countries who follow new economic policies and offer technical assistance in the banking and finance sector, echange rates and fiscal policies
  • Gives financial support to those suffering from BoP problems, often the lender of last resort, imposing madatory economic policies
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49
Q

What are the disadvantages of the IMF?

A
  • Domination of IMF by rich countries means HIC’s are favoured
  • Interest rates on loans are high, reaching up to 14.55%
  • The failure to remove foreign exchange restrictions
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50
Q

What is an example of the IMF at work?

A

In 1976 James callaghan (Dennis healey = CofE) had to borrow $3.9 billion from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in an attempt to maintain the value of the pound.

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51
Q

What are the basics of the WTO (World Trade Organisation)?

A
  • Deals with the rules of trade between 164nations (98% of all global trade)
  • It was created in 1995 in Geneva
  • Aims to remove tariffs and encourage global free trade
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52
Q

How does the WT Oenable inequality to developed?

A
  • Only 164 meber conutries meaning many are left out of the free trade schemes
  • Free trade tends to benefit developed countries more than developing countries, as they often rely on income from tariffs rather than income from taxation
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53
Q

What are the advantages of the WTO?

A
  • No grouping of nations or tactical voting due to the most favoured nation principle
  • LIC’s don’t get locked out due to the MFN principle allowing for specialisation
  • Allows free trade that gives consumers more choice
  • All countries rely on a consensus, this narrows inequality as all countries have a say
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54
Q

What are the disadvantages of the WTO?

A
  • Ignores many social and cultural factors
  • Failure to reduce agricultural tariffs
  • Many HIC’s adopt protectionist policies to protect domestic industries
  • Consensus voting only a few votes are needed to veto a proposal
  • Passing a vote can be very slow and take many years
  • MFN means developing countries cannot give preference to local industries but must instead use foreign multinationals
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55
Q

What is an example of the WTO organisation at work?

A

The 12th Ministerial meeting in Geneva in 2022 was co hosted by Kazakhstan, and decided a ban on giving subsidies to harmful fisheries as a response to a food crisis.

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56
Q

What are the six advantages of international trade?

A
  • Comparative advantage
  • Economies of Scale
  • Purchasing power
  • Fewer domestic monopolies
  • Transfer of technologies
  • Increased employment
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57
Q

What are the six disadvaantages of international trade?

A
  • Over Specialisation
  • Product dumping
  • Stunted groiwth or decline of local and emerging industres
  • Protectionism and tariffs
  • De-skilling
  • Exploitive and labour intensive industries
    *
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58
Q

How is Comparative advantage an advantage of international trade?

A

Country specialising in producing only certin goods produce them more efficiently and at the lowest opportunity cost

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59
Q

How is economies of scale advantage of international trade?

A

Producing a narrower range of goods and services mean a country can produce higher value at a lower cost per unit

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60
Q

How is purchasing power an advantage of international trade?

A

Increases competition lowers prices and allows consumers to buy more for their money.

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61
Q

How is fewer an advantage of international trade?

A

When a single firm controls more than 25% of the market, there is lesser competition. IOnternational trade and imports should lesser the number of domestic monopolies

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62
Q

How is the transfer of technology an advantage of international trade?

A

New technologies are traded, leading to design improvements and cost savings, as well as supporting innovation and enterprise

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63
Q

How is Increased employment an advantage of international trade?

A

Increased production and exports creates more employment -> creating a multiplier effect of more jobs created across the whole economy

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64
Q

How is overspecialisation a disadvantage of interantional trade?

A

If demand falls or production becomes cheaper elsewhere for an overspecialised product, then production will shift. Overspecialised economies are less flexible and less diverse (e.g. Nigeria and oil)

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65
Q

How is Product dumping a disadvantage of interantional trade?

A

Exporting at a price lower than the market price and the price charged domestically

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66
Q

How is Stunted growth or decline of local and emerging industries a disadvantage of interantional trade?

A

New domestic industries may find it difficult to grow and established when paced against existing foreign competitors where prices are lower

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67
Q

How is protectionism and tariffs a disadvantage of interantional trade?

A

May protect important domestic industries by imposing additional taxes and tariffs on imported goods

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68
Q

How is de-skilling a disadvantage of interantional trade?

A

Traditional skills and crafts may be lost when production technologies replaces man power screwdriver (multinational) jobs may dominate

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69
Q

How is exploitive and labour intensive industries a disadvantage of interantional trade?

A

By squeezing costs, the working conditions can be comprimised and worsened

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70
Q

What are the positive effects of the international labour market and the movement of labour?

A
  • Reduced unemployment where there is a lack of work
  • Reduces geographical inequality between workers
  • Adresses important skill and Labour shortages
  • Some workers return to their country of origin with new skills and ideas
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71
Q

What are the negative effects of the international labour market and the movement of labour?

A
  • Countries may find it difficult to retain their best talent, leading to a brain drain, attracted abroad by prospect of better wages and opportunities
  • Loss of skilled workers will create a training gap
  • Outsourcing of production from high wage to low wage economies causes unemployment in more developed countries
  • With greater movement of labour there is a greater risk of diesease and pandemics
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72
Q

What is outsourcing?

A

The movement of production overseas due to:
* Lower wages
* Human rights
* Labour laws

in order to lower the cost of production

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73
Q

What is the source and host country (regarding outsourcing) ?

A

Source = Where the headquarters of a company is
Host = Where the outsourcing is done

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74
Q

What are the effects of outsourcing on the host country?

A

In the source can increase in employment, creating a multiplier effect into the economy

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75
Q

What are the effects of outsourcing on the source country?

A

In the source country there is a loss of jobs (given away to the host country) this can lead to a demultip-lier effect as a company outsources abriad, meaning workers become deskilled in that industry - > therefore less investment will happen in that are or industry. This can lead todeinsutrialisation as factories are no longer being used, leading to dereliction as old insutry zones change.

76
Q

What type of unemployment can outsourcing lead to?

A

Outsourcing can lead to structural unemployment as an entire employment structure can be lost - leaving people without skills to find a job

77
Q

Coca cola case study basics?

A
  • 40% market share in global soft drinks industry
  • 1.9 nillion servings per day
  • 94% of world recgoninses the logo
  • $80bn brand value
  • Headquarters are in Atlanta, Georgia
78
Q

What are the positive social impacts of coca cola as a TNC?

A
  • Massive employment opportunities directly and indirectly
  • Investment in new plants in expanding markets such as Asia and North Africa e.g. a $90 million research and development centre in Shanghai
  • Training and education progreammeses e.g. the global commitment to enable the empowerment of 5 million female entrepreneures in the 5by 20 programme
79
Q

What are the positive political impacts of coca cola as a TNC?

A
  • Uses marketing netwieks to increase awareness if recycling and distribtuion network for disaster relief
  • Franchise operation means that many local bottlers can gain profit from sale supporting the local economy
  • Investment in new markets drive economic growth, there has been a $2bn investment in india since 2011
80
Q

What are the positive environmental impacts of coca cola as a TNC?

A
  • Initiates sustainable agriculture schemes, e.g conserving rainwater harvesting system at tea suppliers in china
  • coca cola foundation awards grants to sustainable companies around the world
  • Replenishes the water it uses in prduction by fnding prjects to protect water supplies
81
Q

What are the negative social impacts of coca cola as a TNC?

A
  • Harsh working conditions in some bottling plants, long hours in poor conditions and pay
  • Millions spent in countering links to obesity controversially reccomends people consume sports and soft drinks
82
Q

What are the negative political impacts of coca cola as a TNC?

A
  • Workers encouraged to abandon union membership in some LICs e.g. guatemala in 2010
  • Majority of profits are repatriated to shareholders back in the USA (Atlanta GA)
  • Vulnerabillity of bottlelants means there is top down decision making
83
Q

What are the negative environmental impacts of coca cola as a TNC?

A
  • Water pollution found in many locations like Kerela, India
  • Exhaustion of local water supplies e.g. in 2012, coca cola used more water than 25% of the population
  • Pesticide residue identified in many coca cola products, containing more than 30x the acceptable pesticide the EU considers
84
Q

Explain the basics of bannanas as a global food commodity?

A
  • found in the lower latitudes (carribeans and central America, bananas are 5th in terms of volume of agricultural trade
  • they sell so well in UK supermarkets because they are ‘loss leaders’ they act as an incentive to get shoopers in and are usually sold at a loss.
  • 33% are fairtrade
85
Q

Explain the production and consumption of bananas?

A

Biggest consumers are US, UK, Canada France and Germany
Biggest producers are: India, China, Philipenes, Guaetamala and Costa Rica

86
Q

Explain the role of TNCs in the production of Bananas?

A
  • Pressures from UK supermarkets to keep prices low (loss leaders) have lead to unethical methods of banana cultivation
  • TMT workers often paid very little in poor working conditions
  • To cut costs, TNCs often plant vast monoculture plantations that reduces biodiversity in areas
  • Strong horizontal and vertical integration enables economies of scale and a secured market acess, TNCs dominate all stages of the production process, esp. because large monoculture plantations have very high capital start up costs
87
Q

What is a banana republic?

A

A small state that is politically unstable as a result of the domination of its economy by a single export that is controlled by foreign capital (not necessarily bananas)

88
Q

What is an example of a banana republic?

A

Honduras was a banana republic

89
Q

Explain how honduras was a banana republic?

A

In 1911, Cuyamel fruit orchesttrated a succesful coup d’etat that replaced the government of honduras with a military government favourable to foreign business.
This internal instability allowed corporations to act as the defacto rulers of Honduras. United fruit soon became the sole employer of the Honduran people and was nicknamed ‘El Guapo’ (the octopus) due to its far reaching control of all aspects of Honduran life

90
Q

What is happening to the prominence of banana republics?

A

Trends are shifting away from TNCs to smaller independent producers, with new buyers entering the market, despite its highly competitive nature. This is in part as a result of fairtrade associations as well as growing consumer pressure applied to supermarkets to buy from smaller wholesalers or directly from producers - rather than TNCs

91
Q

What is Fairtrade?

A

Fairtrade is an NGO that aims to pay farmers a guaranteed minimum price, offer faire trade deals and pay additional development premiums for reinvestment into a local community.
Today, there are 1210 fairtrade certified producer organisations in 74 countries, benefitting around 6 million people.

92
Q

What has fairtrade led to, and evaluate why its success could be limited?

A

The labelling of fairtrade products has boosted consumer awareness on the ethical productions of goods.
However, fairtrades’ success is limited as the criteria for recieving fairtrade approval is empirical and not numerically enforced.

93
Q

What is the fairtrade case study?

A

Fair trades impact on the El Guabo Association of small banana producers in Ecuador.

94
Q

Explain the basics of fair trade on the El Guabo association of small banana producers?

A

One of the worlds largest fairtrade banana producers, it exports 30,000 boxes of bananas a week.

95
Q

What are the economic benefits of fair trade on the El Guabo association of small banana producers on Ecuador?

A
  • Stabilised incomes for thousands and improved standard of living
  • Guaranteed fair wages and long term contracts
  • Producers able to raise additional capital for investment like tanks to wash bananas and boost productivity
  • Migrant labourers are helped e.g. assisted in buying their own lands q
96
Q

Explain the social benefits of fair trade on the El Guabo association of small banana producers?

A
  • Health benefits are given to famalies of cooperatives, with free usage of the El Guabo clinic
  • Provision of education and medical supplies
  • The provsion of a social security system including retirement benefits
  • Marginal groups are helped to find employment
97
Q

What is the Gini Coefficient?

A

a measure of statistical dispersion that represents the income inequality or wealth inequality within a nation or social group

98
Q

What are the flaws of the Gini coefficient?

A
  • Over sensitive of changes in the middle and undersensitive to changes at the extremes.
  • prone to systematic and random data errors as well as sampling bias
  • Doesn’t take into account structural changes within a population
99
Q

List some countries with the highest gini coefficent (inequality)?

A

South Africa
Brazil
Botswanna
Zambia
Mexico
Venezuela

100
Q

List some countries with the lowest gini coefficient (inequality)?

A

Algeria
Norway
Sweden
Denmark
Iceland

101
Q

Why is demand for palm oil so high?

A
  • highly versatile, high melting point
  • cheap
  • highest yield of any oil crop
  • as demand for processed food increases, derived demand for palm oil increases with it, making it the most used vegetable oil woorld wide, with 320,000 tonnes of palm oil consumed every year in the UK
102
Q

What is the distribution of Palm oil?

A

Palm oil needs consistent high humidity and temperatures and lots of land to grow. Therefore, lots of pressure is placed on tropical rainforest biomes - particularly SE Asia.
90% of Palm oil is produced in Malaysia and indonesia leading to 13 million hectares of rainforest being adapted into monoculture plantations

103
Q

What are the impacts of palm oil plantations?

A
  • Deforestation has occured along with its associated impacts
  • TNCs have pushed locals off of their land - sometimes forcibly
  • chemicals involved in palm oil production have contaminated water and soil, making other forms of agriculture impossible
  • Locals are effectively forced to work for TNCs at low wages cultivating palm oil
104
Q

What is the RSPO?

A

The Roundtable on sustainable palm oil represents 2000 members from over 75 countries. It raises awareness of the production of palm oil using more sustainable methods among consumers and producers. The RSPO certifies palm oil as long as it is environmentally responsible, consideres workers and communities affected by the production of palm oil and responsibly develops new land

105
Q

Has the RSPO been successful?

A

Arguably yes, with the number of RSPO certified sales increasing by 3x

106
Q

In what ways is the RSPO not sucessful?

A
  • Critics draw attention to the fact producers can still clear pristine rainforests calls into question the sustainable credentials of the organisation
  • ongoing investigations suggest the RSPO does not effectively investigate into claims of forced labour and child labour on certified plantation sites
107
Q

What is the interlaken group?

A

An informal network of leaders from influential companies, investors, finance institutions and more who have developed a guide to help companies to respect local land and forest tenure rights. This is done in accordance with the UN Document ‘Voluntary guidelines on the responsible governance on the tenure of land, fisheries and forestry in the context of national food security.’

108
Q

What is global governance?

A

An international process of census forming which generates guidelines and agreements that governs the actions of those involved e.g. nation states, companies and international and regional organisations

109
Q

What are proactive actions?

A

Actions that avoid a situation occurring through foresight

110
Q

What are reactive actions?

A

Responding after an incident has occured

111
Q

What are norms?

A

The values, traditions and customs that govern individuals behaviour in any society - they are typically unspoken rules.
Global governance wants to achieve global norms - particularly in the treatment of people. These norms can often become enshrined in laws that reflect the acceptable standards of a cultural background.

112
Q

What are laws?

A

Unlike norms, laws are legally binding and failure to comply can result in prosecution. This can deter nations from global governance if they do not agree with the laws. Moreover, signatories can differ on how international law is interpreted and enforced which can have consequences for human rights or the environment

113
Q

What is sovereignty?

A

The full right and governing power of a governing body over itself, without influence or interference from external sources or bodies. Often increasing globalisation and global governance do not align with sovereign aims. Some argue national sovereignty should be water tight, but in an increasingly global world, the flow of money, people ideas and information are leaking out of individual nations and leaking across borders.

114
Q

What is the CIGI and what has it done?

A

The Centre for International Governance Innovation has identified inequalities and injustices in almost every sector of global governance that are impeding global progress.

115
Q

What are the 3 gaps in global governance that the Centre for International Governance Innovation has identified?

A
  • The Jurisdictional gap
  • The incentive gap
  • The participation gap
116
Q

What is the CIGI’s jurisdictional gap?

A

The idea that global governance is needed. but no single country or individual has the power to do so.

117
Q

What is the CIGI’s incentive gap?

A

We need global governance, but no one has the motivation to do so

118
Q

What is the CIGI’s participation gap?

A

We need global governance but it is happening top down rather than bottom up

119
Q

What is the global challenge relating to cyber security?

A

The new challenge of cyber security is how to enable the free flow of innovaion while limiting ‘cyber aggression’ while preventing national governments from preventing the spread of information for political purposes. Many experts on the issue have suggested taht due to the speed of change, forms of regulation will be worse than having no regulation at all.

120
Q

Give an example of how global governance comes at a global, regional and local scale?

A
  • The WTO creates a trade agreement that affects global trading
    -> The Departments for international trade (UK) decides what imports can enter the UK on a regional scale.
    -> A regional instituion buys these imports and distribute them
    -> A local shop buys them from a distributor
121
Q

List some examples of global issues?

A

Ageing population
AIDS
Atomic energy
Climate change
Poverty
Food
Migration
Energy
Peace and security
Oceans
Refugees

122
Q

What UN organisation aims to uphold world peace and security?

A

The UN security council

123
Q

What UN organisation aims to Provide humanitarian and development assistance and uphold Human rights?

A

The UN Children’s fund

124
Q

What global organisation aims to eradicate and prevent world hunger?

A

World food programme

125
Q

What UN organisation aims to protect refugees?

A

UN high comission for for refugees

126
Q

What global organisation aims to eradicate and combat global diesease?

A

WHO - world health organisation

127
Q

What UN organisation aims to develop friendly relations and settle legal disputes?

A

The UN general assembly

128
Q

What are the 5 main UN organisations looked at within the case study?

A

UNESCO
Peacekeeping
General assembly
Security council
International court of justice

129
Q

What are the 4/5 global commons?

A
  • The high seas and deep oceans
  • The Atmosphere
  • The north and south polar regions
  • Outer space
    Cyberspace
130
Q

What is a global commons?

A

Parts of the planet that fall outside the jurisdiction of different nations, to which all nations may access. TMT every country has the right to benefit from the global commons. TMT they have to be governed on a global scale.

131
Q

What is the tragedy of the commons?

A

A term used to describe a shared resource system where individual users act independently of their own self interest and not the planets - Countries and companies that exploit the global commons may face fewer consequences, due the the fact
that they are ‘owned’ by every country. The ‘shared’ nature
of the commons has left it vulnerable to issues such
as mineral exploitation, fossil fuel extraction, overfishing etc.

132
Q

What governs the global common of the high seas

A

The UN convention on the laws of the sea

133
Q

What are the advantages of the UN convention on the law of the sea?

A
  • Defined the rights and responsibillities of nations with respect to their use of the worlds nations
  • 167 nations have joined convention
  • established countries Exclusive economic zones which extend 200 nautical miles out to sea
134
Q

What are the disadvantages of the UN convention on the law of the sea?

A

Excacerbates inequality, because larger countries with colonial overseas empires (France, Britain, Japan) all have a much larger EEZ.

135
Q

What governs the global common of the Atmosphere?

A

The UN framework on climate change

136
Q

What are the advantages of the UN Framework convention on climate change?

A
  • Ratified by 197 countries
  • First global treaty to explicitly adress climate change
  • Established annual forum known as the conference of Paris (COP) that aims at stabilising GHG emissions
  • Helped produce the Kyoto protocl and paris agreement
137
Q

What are the disadvantages of the UN Framework convention on climate change?

A

Despite the UNFCCC, annual GHG emissions continue to rise and are over 60% higher than when it was signed in 1994 - many politicians also use COP to ‘Greenwash;

138
Q

What governs the global common of outer space?

A

The Outer space treaty

139
Q

What are the advantages of the outer space treaty?

A
  • Declared that outer space would be explored for the benefit of human kind and not one single nation
  • Free exploration for all states
  • No use of Outer space weaponary
  • Signed by 113 countries and it is yet to be violated
140
Q

What are the disadvantages of the Outer Space treaty?

A
  • Doesn’t deal with future advances in technologies and is becoming increasngly outdated as it was signed in 1966 (not proactive)
  • The term ‘space’ is not accurately defined or described - unclear where atmosphere beings and ends
141
Q

What are the 5 key organisations of the UN?

A
  • General assembly
  • Security council
  • International court of justice
  • UN educational, scientific, cultural organisation
  • Peacekeeping
142
Q

What is the function of the UN general assembly?

A

All 193 members debate issues of peace and security

143
Q

What is the function of What is the function of the UN security council?

A

5 permenant members (USA,UK,FR,RUS,CHI) discuss peace and stability alongside 10 temporary members elected every 2 years

144
Q

What is the function of the international court of justice?

A

Discusses legal disputes and breakings of international law

145
Q

What is the function of UNESCO?

A

Maintains peace through education, sceince and culture, protecting freedom of expression

146
Q

What is the function of the UN peacekeeping commitee?

A

Brings peace to areas post-conflict to restore stability and order

147
Q

What are the 3 ways the UN promotes growth and inequality?

A

UN sanctions allow inequalities and injustices to be resolved
- e.g. sanctions deterred Iran’s use of nuclear enrichment and processing
Promotes growth through international treaties and goals
- The millennium development goals aims to tackle literacy rates, poverty, famine and other global issues
Creates policies and legislation to protect human rights
- Done through the international courts of justice and the decleration of human rights

148
Q

Why has the UN peacekeeping forces been criticized (Excacerabting inequality and injustices) ?

A

Accused of commiting crimes against the most vulnerable of people
-> in Kosovo there were 800 counts of sexual abuse and 70 murders by Peacekeeping forces

149
Q

Why has the UN been criticised for being inactive in areas where intervention was needed (and excacerbated inequalities and injustices)?

A
  • Did not prevent the 1971 bangladesh genocide
  • Dutch peacekeeping forces were inactive in the 1993 Sbrencia massacre
  • In 2013, Saudi Arabia was elected on the UN human rights council despite their poor human rights record, with the UK influencing this through secret voting deals
    -> this has led to the creation of organisations like UN watch to monitor the UN’s effectiveness
150
Q

Why has the UN been accused of having country bias?

A

Accused of bias during the Israeli - palestine war, from 2012-2015, 83/97 UN general assembly resolutions were against Israel, and none against palestine

151
Q

What are the issues with the UN security council?

A
  • The 5 permenant members have a veto, TMT HICs can exert influence over other temporary members
  • No South American or African seats on the security council
  • East-West antagonism can lead to decision making paralysis, with suggestions that vetos should be wavied for atrocities
  • Many believe it is a doomed institution that will become increasingly obsolete if nothing is done about the veto system
152
Q

Where is the coldest area in Antarctica?

A

Vostok Station in Centeral East antarctica reachin the lowest ever temp of -90

153
Q

Where is the warmest area in Antarctica?

A

The warmest area of Antarctica is Pothera point with a lowest average temperature of -10 and highest average of 0

154
Q

How does precipitation vary across Antarctica?

A

Average precipitation in coastal areas is around 400-600mm/year but inland is just 50mm a year, making it a desert.
The McMurdo dry valley has not seen rain in 2 million years

155
Q

How is climate change having differing impacts across Antarctica?

A

East Antarctica’s glaciers are acculmulating as higher temperatures means more evaporation is occuring in the area, contrastingly, the Antarctic peninsula sees the highest rate of global warming, with temps increasing by 0.5 degrees a decade, 5x faster than the global average

156
Q

What is the size of Antarctica?

A

8million km2 of land, 14million km2 of ice - this ice can be 4km thick

157
Q

What % of global freshwater does Antarctica hold?

A

90%

158
Q

Explain wind in Antarctica?

A

Antarctica experiences the strong Katabatic winds with the highest wind speed reaching 199 mph

159
Q

What do the conditions of antarctica mean for its wildlife?

A

As a result, only well adapted mosses and lichens survive - making the environment fragile

160
Q

What resources are present in Antarcica?

A

Southern ocean is plentiful with fish, wales and krill
Large oil reserves in the southern oceans
Rich iron ore deposits deep within the Transantarctic mountains

161
Q

What are the 4 major threats to Antarctica?

A

Climate change
Fishing and Whaling
Mineral and resource extraction
Tourism and scientific research

162
Q

How is fishing and whaling a threat to Antarctica?

A
  • 150-200,000 tonnes of krill fished each year (most from antarctica) despite regulation, much illegal, unreported and unregulated krill fishing is causing repercussions across whole food chain
  • By 1800 the fur seals of South Georgia and South Shetland were wiped out
  • By 1982 the IWC had to issue a whaling Moratorium because stocks of whales were so low, only 2,000 blue whales in the southern ocean today, with Norway, Iceland and Japan still whaling
  • Recently fishing is becoming a greater concern as Russian and Japense exploitation of Southern ocean for Rock Cod and Krill has increased
163
Q

How is mineral/resource exploitation a threat to Antarctica?

A

Despite coal, oil, iron and manganese deposits, all forms of mining weer banned in the protocol on environmental protection in 1998 until 2048
Rising fossil fuel demands may make drilling the 4km thick ice viable, leading to habitat destruction and oil spills, damaging the ecosystem in the long term
The use of fossil fuels on a global scale also threatens Antarctica through Climate Change

164
Q

How is scientific research a threat to Antarctica?

A
  • Transient population of 4000 scientists at 50 stations run by 30 nations to do ice core drilling to reveal info about past climatic conditions
  • Huskie dogs used to be used but they were often fed seals and penguines leading to infected wildlife - dogs have since been banned
  • 50 research stations have impacted habitats, but this has been relatively minor, with scientists adapting many biosecurity measures to limit impact
165
Q

How much has Tourism in Antarctica increased by?

A

Visitor numbers have been growing:
1980 = 2,000
2010 = 37,000
2017 = 52,000

166
Q

How is tourism a threat to the Antarctic?

A

As demand for extreme tourism rises, it is presenting a larger threat,
Sea ice and cruise ship crashes damage environment
Tourists on land trample paths and leave litter (decomposes very slowly) and they can bring new dieseases and invasive species with them

167
Q

In what ways is the threat posed to Antarctica by Tourism limited?

A

The International association of Antarctic tour operators (IAATO) have agreed for 1 ship at a landing site at a time and limit the number of visitors on land
Additionally, they touch a small section of the 14millionkm2, with only 10/200 landing sites showing signs of environmental degredation.

168
Q

How has climate change impacted the Antarctic?

A

Native species are highly adapted and suffer greatly when temps rise
Higher temps can mean species suited to higher temperatures may grow and colonise the environment.
Migration patterns are changing leading to the decline of the Adelie penguin
Lead to the postive albedo feedback loop

169
Q

How is climate change impacting Antarctica differently?

A

In West Antarctica, where ice is formed on rock, the ice sheets are becoming more valuable where temps are rising by 0.5 a decade (5x global average)
In East Antarctica ice is acculmulating on Glaciers as increased evaporation increases rainfall

170
Q

Why is Antarctica more manageable as a global common?

A

More manageable due to distance, colder tempeaturs and ice cover - there is less of an incentive to exploit it.

171
Q

What are the basics of the Anrtarctice treaty?

A

established in 1959, 52 countries have signed it, with any UN member being able to acede.
UN bodies like UNEP have observer status to provide expertise

172
Q

What are the aims of the Antarctic treaty?

A
  • Guarantee free acess to research for all nations
  • Prohibit military activity and bomb tests
  • Ban the dumping of Nuclear waste in Antarctica
173
Q

What are the Drawbacks of the 1959 Antarctic treaty system?

A

Decision making must be done by consensus, meaning no single member can disagree TMT resolutions can be stopped easily
Moreover, there are no penalties for breaking agreements, therefore it is based on an honour system

174
Q

Why are NGO’s important in Antarctica + an example?

A

They concentrate and provide expertise - champion caluses and rally public support
e.g. the Work of the Antarctic ocean alliance in championing the case for designated Marine Protected areas (MPAs) in East Antarctica, the Ross Sea and the Weddel sea

175
Q

What are the differences in the ways Greenpeace and WWF gain attention?

A

WWF takes a collaborator - lobbyist approach, working with governments and businesses (accepting donations from them) While Greenpeace isolates itself from governments and businesses, only accepting donations from indivduals or grant foundations
WWF collaborates with governments and businesses to develop positive relationships and help maintain the environment, whereas greenpeace uses more direct action like protests outside corporate geadquarters and using the media as a weapon to increase awareness. They apply public pressure on policy to incite change
Both hold governments accountable and create awareness

176
Q

Advantages of the IWC ?

A

+ establishes catch limits, provides whale sanctuaries and restricts hunting methos
+ IWCs schedule can be updated at any time, with only a 3/4 majority cote needed for change
+ Funds whale conservation, maintains scientific data and publishes its own peer reviewed scientific journal
+ Membership can be given to any nation (currently 89)
+ Frequently revises sustainable catch limits by using algorithms

177
Q

Disadvantages of the IWC?

A
  • Member states can freely leave without consequence (like Japan did in 2018)
  • Norway and Icealnd have exception to commercially whale (although this is monitored and regulated by the IWC)
  • Countries can easily exploit loopholes like when Japan commercially whaled in Antarctica using ‘Scientific purposes’ as their justification
178
Q

Advantages of the ATS (Antarctic Treaty System) ?

A

+ 53 parties agreed Antarctica should be used for purely peaceful means
+ All research stations can be inspected at any time
+ Treaty has a specific clause that allows for a review conference, and this has yet to be done
+ Widlely regarded as one of the most succesful international agreements

179
Q

Disadvantages of the ATS?

A
  • Treaty not mandatory
  • Station inspections are rare
  • All decisions must be made unanimously, therfore change is slow and embedded in political contreversy
  • Without any legal penalties, rule breaking is done on an honour system
180
Q

What are the advantages of the Protocol on the Environmental protection of the Antarctic treaty?

A

+ Bans all mineral extraction activity
+ Added further regulation from 1959 treaty, including additions to waste management and marine pollution

181
Q

WHat are the disadvantages of the Protocol on the Environmental protection of the Antarctic treaty?

A
  • The Ban on mineral mining (alongside many other parts of the treaty) only lasts until 2048, at a time where mineral extraction in the Antarctic may be much more economically viable
182
Q

What are the advantages of the 1982 (enforced in 1986) IWC Whaling Moratorium?

A

+ Paused commercial whaling for the 88 members of the IWC
+ Since peak whaling in 1964, the number of whales killed annually has been reduced from 82,000 -> 1,500

183
Q

What are the disadvantages of the 1982 Whaling Moratorium?

A
  • Number of Blue whales in the southern ocean is dangerously low at 2,300
  • Norway and Icealand are exempt from the Moratorium (although heavily monitored and regulated by the IWC)
  • Japan exploited loopholes to commerically whale in the Antarctic under the Pretense of scientifc purposes
  • Japan left in 2018 without any consequence
184
Q

What is dependency theory?

A

Neo Marxist dependency theory rejects the view that the people in LEDCs are responsible for the lack of development, instead arguing that development in these nations has been purposefully stunted by the core nations

185
Q

What is Wallersteins world systems theory?

A

Believes global institutions form a ‘modern world system’ that involves all countries. Wallerstein believes there is an international division of Labour characterized by 3 capitalist zones:
- The Core zone that controls world wages and manufactured goods production
- The Semi-Periphery zones which have core like urban centers and periphery like rural areas - the core contracts work out to these countries
- The periphery countries provide the raw materials that are supplied to the core + semi periphery.

186
Q

How many countries have a VAT on imports?

A

161

Human Geography (6 decks)

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