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A-level Geography > Resource Security > Flashcards

Resource Security Flashcards

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1
Q

What are primary energy resources?

A

Wood, gas, oil, coal, hydropower and direct solar energy

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2
Q

What are secondary energy resources?

A

Thermal power stations and geothermal power stations.

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3
Q

Define primary energy?

A

Form of energy found in nature that has not undergone a transformation process

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4
Q

Define secondary energy?

A

Energy derived from a conversion process

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5
Q

What is wood energy?

A

Provides domestic heating and cooking. It is a critical resource.

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6
Q

Define resource

A

Any aspect of the natural environment that can be used to meet human needs, or accomplish an activity. Often an economic or productive factor.
Examples include: land, labour, capital, energy, management etc.

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7
Q

Define stock resource

A

Finite and non-renewable, they have taken millions of years to form and cannot be replenished. E.g. fossil fuels, gold, uranium, copper.

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8
Q

Flow resources

A

Can be continuously replenished within human timescales, making them renewable. e.g. wind, solar energy, tidal energy.

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9
Q

Define critical flow resource

A

Resources that require careful human management to ensure their continued availability e.g. water, trees

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10
Q

Resource? Stock resources classification

A

All deposits which may be viable to extract in the future

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11
Q

Reserve? Stock resources classification

A

Deposits of minerals which are being extracted now, due to being economically viable e.g. high demand

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12
Q

What factors will determine the availability of resources?

A

Physical availability: patterns and quantities
Economic viability: price makes it worthwhile?
Political/legal access: permission?
Environmental/sustainability concerns: damage to the environment from extraction?

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13
Q

Inferred resource?

A

The quantity is estimated on the basis of limited sampling into the geology. There is insufficient data to justify exploitation. Chance of 10% or greater that reserve is there.

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14
Q

Indicated reserve?

A

Estimated with a level of confidence through more extensive sampling. Evaluation of economic viability of deposits. Chance of 50% or more that mineralisation occurs.

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15
Q

Possible resource?

A

Indicative in situ information but without sampling. Insufficient reliable data to justify an exploration phase. The degree of mineral sampling is insignificant.

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16
Q

Measured reserve?

A

Well established and measured with confidence. Mine/quarry productive planning. Evaluation of the economic viability of deposits. Sufficient sample tests and 90% chance that mineralisation occurs.

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17
Q

What factors does mineral exploitation depend on?

A

The mineral content of the rocks: low grade = high waste and high grade often in more difficult environments
Geological conditions: shallow depth = open cast extraction which is cheaper. Ease of extraction.
Accessibility in relation to markets: lower value minerals are more strongly influenced by transport costs.

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18
Q

Physical risks?

A

Accessibility of the resource available. Depends on:

  • the quantity of the resource that has been found
  • its quality
  • its physical location and accessibility
  • technology available to access the resource economically
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19
Q

Geopolitical risks?

A

Concentration of production

Confidence in trading producers who will seek to exert their market power.

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20
Q

What is a resource frontier?

A

An area where a resource is brought into production for the first time

  • peripheral environment
  • natural environment with little human development
  • extreme environments - technological challenges
  • may be within international territory
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21
Q

What is a resource peak?

A

Marks the point in time where the largest production of a mineral resource will occur in an area, with production declining in subsequent years. Global extraction and production is becoming more challenging.

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22
Q

Define sustainable resource development

A

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Economically, socially and politically sustainable.

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23
Q

Give examples of supply side management

A

Seeking methods of increasing the supply of resource
Increasing exploration of existing resources
Increased research efforts to develop more sustainable alternative resources
New technologies that are more sustainable and cause less environmental impact.

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24
Q

Give examples of demand side management

A

Reducing consumption of resources
Changing individual behaviour to discourage wasteful resource use
Increasing efficiency of resource use
Recycling of resources
Regulatory controls as part of global governance e.g. Kyoto Protocol.

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25
Q

What are the key principles of an environmental impact assessment? EIA

A

Aims to anticipate the likely impacts of a resource extraction project and minimise the negative impacts
Are a legal requirement of some countries

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26
Q

What are the 7 stages required under EU law for all new developments?

A

Description of the project
Alternatives have been considered
Description of the environment (areas that will be affected e.g. fauna)
Description of significant effects on the environment
Mitigation
Non-technical summary - so public understand
Technical difficulties - areas of weakness.

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27
Q

What are the cycles of resource security?

A

Available sea or land - Exploration rights and licenses - Evaluation and environmental assessment - construction of sight - operation and extraction of resource - closure of site - Reclamation and monitoring - available sea or land ……

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28
Q

What are the sources of copper?

A

Found primarily in igneous rocks (60%), hydrothermal deposits and in sedimentary rocks (40%).

The main mineral ores are chalcopyrite (50%), malchite and bornite.

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29
Q

Explain the distribution/resources of copper?

A

Chile has the largest reserves and resources at 34%, producing over 5 million tonnes in 2014.
Followed by Peru and China.

Japan is the largest importer.

Codelco is the top copper producing over 1.5 million tonnes in 2014. This is a Chilean State company.

Latin America accounts for almost 50% of global copper ores
60% pf global copper consumption occurs in Asia.

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30
Q

Describe the properties of copper

A 
Ductile
Strong and malleable
Conductor of heat 
Electrical conductor 
Corossion resistant 
Easily combined with other metals to make alloys 
Decorative - sheen when polished 
Very recyclable (90% can be recycled).
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31
Q

Describe the overall changes in the production and consumption of copper

A

Demand for copper is driven by economic growth and stagnation
Recycling is needed to meet annual consumption
As large developing countries have entered the market, demand has increased
Production is dispersed globally

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32
Q

How is copper traded?

A

Most ore is semi processed at the mines to reduce bulk and weight
40% of the world’s demand is met by recycled copper
Traded as fabricated items and as a apart of end use products eg electronic equipment

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33
Q

Who are the key players in the copper industry?

A

Mine owning companies can determine the rate of copper extraction and processing, and slow down operation if the price falls
Organised through a small number of global mineral TNCs
Strikes atthese companies have increased global prices
Individual purchase
Companies hoarding copper to increase global market

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34
Q

What factors affect copper pricing?

A

Global demand

Speed of production

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35
Q

Environmental impacts of copper mining?

A

Shift from underground mining to open pit mining

  • large amounts of overburden (waste) and tailings (leftover)
  • the lower the ore grade, the worse the environmental impact is
  • if tailings arent covered, dust and water leaching through the waste can carry toxic material into the environment
  • air pollution from smelting gases and dust
  • carbon dioxide from transport
  • sulphur given off
  • whole production process
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36
Q

Impacts associated with copper extraction?

A

Air contamination from dust

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37
Q

Impacts associated with processing copper?

A
  • Water contamination: large volumes required to wash and semi process the copper ore. Water contaminated with rock waste and toxic minerals is discharged into local drainagesystems or washed away during heavy rainfall
  • Water over abstraction: large demands for fresh water for processing = excessive abstraction, lowering the water table and causing rural areas to dry up.
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38
Q

Impacts associated with the distribution of the ore, or finished product?

A
  • Vehicle emissions: mine traffic and transfer to docks for shipping can create significant amounts of dust, noise, congestion and vehicle emissions
  • Coastal pollution: loading of ore into ships, transfer spilling oil.
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39
Q

What major copper extraction scheme did we study?

A

The Kennecott Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah

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40
Q

What are the environmental effects of the Kennecott Bingham Canyon Mine?

A

2nd most polluting mine in the US by toxic release
Proposed for listing as one of the most hazardous waste sites
Pollution of the Great Salt Lake
Ecosystems for migratory birds have been damaged
Goundwater contamination as wastewater has escaped the sites collection system
Airpollution as 4500 000 tonnes of rock are extracted daily which creates large quanitities of dust
Pollution of the scenery as it is 4.5 km across and 1.2km deep

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41
Q

Management of the Kennecott Bingham mine?

A

Invested 2.5 billion US dollars into modernising and adressing environmental problems
Water trucks spray 50 000 gallons onto roads to reduce dust
Retired its coal powered plant, and now energy will be more renewable.
2019 Clean Air business partner award.
Land used to consist of illegal dumps

42
Q

Sustainability issues with The Kennecott Bingham mine?

A

Increasing waste per tonne of copper as low grade ores are exploited
Water supply constraints
Fuel costs and carbon taxes increase energy cost
Sustainable in terms of quantity as unlikely to run out soon = 200 years of resources
Recycling copper can increase sustainability
Economic sustinability is uncertain

43
Q

Ore extraction at the Kennecott Bingham mine?

A

Restortion plans to relocate animals
Baffle mounds to reduce noise and dust sprayed with water
Water turbidity: dust particles can block sunlight from aquatic plats
Toxic leachates
Passing mine drainage through a filter
Spoil disposal: potential for landslides
Drainage pipes in the base of spoil prevents water logging and prevents landslide risk.

44
Q

Trade at the kennecott bingham mine

A

Green trade alliance: most sustainable scenario promoting environmental sustainability without compromising competitiveness. LIC and HIC
rebased globalism: economic power is held between markets with strong demand so free market principles are held.
Resource security: least sustainable as based on national interest. Hoard domestic resources and enter trade alliances.

45
Q

Define energy security

A

The uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price.

46
Q

What is primary energy?

A

Form of energy found in nature that has not undergone a transformation process

47
Q

What is secondary energy?

A

Energy derived from a conversion process is known as secondary energy.

48
Q

Give examples of primary energy?

A 
Wood
Gas
Oil
Coal
Hydropower
Direct solar energy
49
Q

Give examples of secondary energy?

A

Thermal power stations

Geothermal power stations

50
Q

What are components of demand for energy?

A

Use and consumption of energy constitutes energy demand
Domestic needs: heating, lighting, cooking
Industry: heating, lighting, powering machinery
Transport: road, sea, air and rail
Services: retail, commerce, offices, leisure, street lighting etc
Agriculture: machinery, equipment, stock sheds and greenhouses

Some categories of demand are for a dominant fuel eg transport reliant on oil
Other categories may come from a variety of energy sources eg domestic heating relies on wood, coal, oil etc.

51
Q

What is the worlds largest sector for energy consumption?

A

Industrial at 51.7%

52
Q

Which fuel is the largest contributor for world energy consumption?

A

Oil at 4.25 billion metric tonnes.

53
Q

Define energy mix?

A

Group of different primary energy sources from secondary energy for direct use - usually electricity - is produced i.e. where a nations energy comes from.

54
Q

UK’s energy mix in 2019?

A
  1. 7% oil
  2. 2% gas
  3. 4% renewables
  4. 4% nuclear
  5. 3% coal
55
Q

How do energy mixes change over time?

A

On a short term basis e.g. day to day based on weather conditions and potential for wind/solar energy
On a long term basis e.g. UK phasing out coal due to carbon impact and developing renewables.

56
Q

What factors contribute to a country’s energy mix?

A

Availability of energy sources within the country
Physical/locational conditions
Inertia: keeping what you already have due to cost involved in changing
Government energy policy: trying to achieve energy security, meeting targets from treaties
Geopolitics: international relationships with other countries who can provide energy
Level of development: funding available for investment in energy infrastructure or to import energy
Diversity: Trying to ensure a wide base of energy sources and reduce reliability on one.

57
Q

What is Iceland’s energy mix?

A

2/3 is Geothermal

Nearly 1/3 hydro

58
Q

What is Niger’s energy mix?

A

3/4 is biofuel

59
Q

What is France’s energy mix?

A

45% nuclear

30% primary and secondary oil

60
Q

What is the relationship between physical geography and energy supply?

A

Climate, drainage and geology all shape energy supply.

61
Q

How does climate effect energy supply?

A

Wind: strength: minimum wind speed needed to operate turbines is 7 mph. Need to be spaced apart. Greater air density means more energy received from the turbine
Ice sheets/tundra may affect access to resources
Sunlight: tropical regions good as sun is higher in the sky so longer days. Cloudy days make it hard to justify. Smog or air pollution.
Air density: solar exposure is better in the mountains because the air is thinner.
Snowfall: won’t operate if covered in snow
Wind: strong winds damage equipment.
Precipitation: regions with high levels of precipitation are better for HEP.
Biomass growth: growth of sugar cane for bio-ethanol and sustainable harvesting of biomass fuel depends on climate.

62
Q

How does geology affect energy supply?

A

Fossil fuel structure
Geothermal crustal structure: where the crust is thin and mantle or magma heated rocks are close to the surface, potential for geothermal energy increases.
Tectonic plate structure: margins, seismic activity can cause safety issues for power stations.

63
Q

How does drainage affect energy supply?

A

Topography of the drainage basin
Freshwater abstraction: thermal power stations rely on uncontaminated water to produce steam that turns turbines
Dam construction: potential for HEP with suitable topography.
Size and shape of drainage basins, and volume of water in the channels are important for HEP.

64
Q

Sustainability issues associated with energy production?

A

Nuclear waste:

  • risks associated with nuclear accidents
  • disposal of radioactive waste
  • health and safety concerns from radiation
  • contamination of water supplies
  • concern over crops and grazing animals safely.

Difficult to dispose:

  • physical conditions
  • economically expensive
  • transport
  • political and social barriers

Acid Rain

65
Q

Describe the global energy production and consumption pattern

A

Some countries produce lots of energy because they have lots of natural resources and the money to exploit them e.g.
Saudi Arabia - large oil reserves
Russis - large oil and gas reserves
Australia - large coal reserves
Indonesia - large coal, oil and gas reserves

Some countries produce little energy because they have few resources or are unable to exploit their resources due to political instability or lack of money. e.g.
Angola - large oil reserves but lacks money
Spain - lots of money but small fossil fuel reserves

66
Q

How does climate effect energy supply?

A

Can effect the volume and quality of renewable resources e.g.
- Wind: can only be generated in locations with an average wind speed about 5.5 m/s. High winds can also damage wind turbines.
- Hydroelectric power: relies on large flows of water to generate electricity, is not reliable in places with frequent droughts
- Solar: generated using sunlight, most effective in places with little cloud cover. Varies dependant on time of year.
Also affects the production of non-renewable sources e.g. mines can be flooded and offshore oil rigs can be damaged by storms.

67
Q

How does geology affect energy supply?

A

Coal is a sedimentary rock, and forms when plant material undergoes specific geological processes such as burial and heating.
Oil and natural gas need specific geological conditions to form. Both gas and oil travel upwards through pores until they meet a layer of impermeable rock and become trapped.
Oil and natural gas can also form in shale, which is impermeable so difficult to extract.
Geology is also important for geothermal energy production. Many geothermal stations are located in places where he earths crust is thin.

68
Q

How does drainage affect energy supply?

A

The drainage network of a country affects the volume of energy that can be generated using HEP. HEP is most effect if there is a large volume of water flowing consistently down the river with a basin with steep sides.

69
Q

Give examples of geopolitical issues linked to energy production, trade and use

A
  • Global energy use is increasing and fossil fuel reserves are decreasing. An ‘energy crisis’ is making governments concerned about how to secure energy supplies for the future.
  • Many of the largest reserves of oil and gas are in areas that are politically and economically unstable, so energy supplies are at risk of being disrupted.
  • Environmental impact. Initiatives to address these problems.
70
Q

Success of London congestion charge?

A

Charge reduces traffic by 15%. Reduced congestion by 30%.

71
Q

The Danish Model to reduce energy?

A

Reduces energy cost by 50%. Carbon emissions from heating to 40% lower than gas and boiler systems.

72
Q

Strategies for increasing energy supply?

A

Increase resource use of existing domestic energy sources
e.e. Oil and gas exploration fidning new reserves e.g. Maersk North Sea production
Apply new engineering technology to exploit new domestic energy sources
e.g. Fracking in the UK
Develop new resource frontiers
e.g. Antarctica
Increase imports of existing energy sources from foreign suppliers
e.g. Liquefied natural gas from Quatar
Develop imports of new energy sources from foreign suppliers
e.g. import electricity by undersea cable from Iceland
Develop renewable energy from domestic sources

73
Q

What are the sustainability issues associated with energy production in regards to nuclear waste?

A

Nuclear Waste: risks associated with nuclear accidents, disposal of radioactive waste, health and safety concerns, contamination of water supplies.
Difficult to dispose because: physical conditions, economically expensive, transport, political and social barriers.
Management involves reprocessing. Taking fuel rods from around the world, extracting reusable uranium and plutonium and strong remaining waste in steel clad or concrete containers.

74
Q

What are the sustainability issues with energy production in regards to acid rain?

A

Acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide dissolve in rainwater and form acid rain. Acid rain kills plant life, pollutes rivers and streams and erodes stonework.
Environmental impacts: damages trees, leeches toxic material, kills fish stocks and damages ecosystems, accelerates weathering and harmful effects on human health.
It is a migrating problem and effects areas that aren’t necessarily the source of the problem.
Managing acid rain:
- using catalytic converters in cars can reduce acidic emissions from exhausts.
- Burning fossil fuels with a lower sulphur content
- replacing coal-fired power stations
- energy conservation: reducing waste and therefore demand for electricity.
- ‘liming’ adding lime to neutralise the acidity in acidic lakes.

75
Q

What are sustainability issues associated with energy production in regards to The Greenhouse Effect?

A

Solar insolation from the sun is trapped in the lower atmosphere by greenhouse gases when it is re-radiated from the earth’s surface.

76
Q

Energy supplies increasing globalisation?

A

Energy resources are unevenly distributed around the world which means countries have to trade
New- petroleum producing regions opens up new trade routes
New natural gas pipelines being built causes areas to become interconnected.
New ‘unconventional oil and gas’ technology makes new trade routes due to more extraction
Capacity in liquefied natural gas is increasing
Number of free trade areas expanding
Emerging economies
Energy production being affected by climate policy

77
Q

Energy supplies decreasing globalisation?

A

Rising consumption in major oil-exporters e.g. Iran reducing their exports of oil
“008 financial crisis led to improvements in energy efficiency and investment in renewable energy
Production of new unconventional oil and gas rising
Resource peaks in non-renewable sources

78
Q

What are geopolitics?

A

Study of ways in which political decisions and processesses affect the way space and resources are used. Or, the study of the relationships between energy and political power.

79
Q

Explain how national governments are key players in the geopolitics of energy?

A

Can lead to conflict in energy supply e.g. South China Sea, or cooperation e.g. The UK and Norway:
Working together on developing wind energy technology. They will be connected in 2021 by undersea cables, and the UK will be able to import Norwegian renewable in the form of HEP.
- longest sub-sea electricity interconnector.
- import to provide 14% of yearly household electricity needs
- consumer benefits of up to 3.5 billion pounds through to 2040.

80
Q

Explain how TNCs are key players in the geopolitics of energy?

A

In 2016, 6/10 of the top TNCs by revenue were energy companies e.g. Shell, BP, EXON.
Huge revenues to invest in oil and gas development
Technology, experience and expertise.
Exploit economies of scale.

81
Q

Explain how OPEC is a key player in the geopolitics of energy?

A

12 key members
Aims to coordinate and stabilise prices
Home to 80% of global reserves
Growth of unconventional sources has reduced the influence of OPEC.
OPEC attempts to control supply to the world market in order to influence the price of oil. This requires cooperation as they jointly attempt to withold supply to increase prices.
OPEC has released more oil supplies onto world markets in an attempt to undercut US unconventional oil resources
Development of oil resources in non-OPEC countries means that the cartel has less control

82
Q

How will technology affect the future of energy resources?

A

Development of hydrogen as a fuel source: to produce and store surplus energy in fuel cells by electrolysis of water. Issues: electrolysis requires lots of energy and hydrogen cannot be compressed safely.
Gasification of coal: converted to gas below ground
Secondary and tertiary oil extraction: using bacteria to digest heavy oil
Nuclear energy: safer technology using smaller reactors more evenly distributed.
Offshore wind farms: developed from aeronautics technology
Solar fuels
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

83
Q

What is ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)?

A

Generation of electricity by exploiting the temperature differences between surface water and deep. colder water. Warm water is pumped through an evaporator containing a working fluid. Vapourised fluid drives a turbine, and fluid is turned back into a liquid in a condensr cooled with ocean water.
Advantages: renewable, no GHG emissions, can be used to power electrolysis for hydrogen.
Disadvantages: relatively inefficient due to small temperature differences - about 1/3 of energy generated needs to be used to operate the system. Needs to be built on a large scale which is expensive to build.

84
Q

Explain the economic future of energy resources

A
  • Energy trade flows towards Asian markets will continue to gather pace. With a slow down in the Chinese economy, India and Middle-East countries will take up the reins. Increased availability of liquefied natural gas.
  • By the mid 2020s, non-OPEC oil supply from Canada, Brazil and the USA may begin to decline and the oil economy will rely on supplies from Venezuela and Middle Eastern countries.
  • Natural gas production will increase in every region except Europe. Unconventional gas will account for 60% of growth in production. (shale gas to decline by 2030s)
  • Sub-Saharan Africa to account for only 4% in growth of global energy demand.
85
Q

Explain the environmental future of energy resources?

A

Carbon capture and sequestration: enables the scrubbing of carbon from power plants for storage in underground reservoirs e.g. exhausted oil and gas traps. Allows fossil fuels to be used with less environmental impact.
Targets for carbon emissions will become more stringent as climate change presents problems.
Development of unconventional sources of fossil fuels will do little to reduce carbon emissions.
Likely to be more local energy generation from a combination of smaller power stations, combined heat and power plants and energy from waste alternatives. There will be some energy efficient gains and environmental benefit from this.

86
Q

Explain the political future of energy resources?

A

The influence of TNCs in resource development will continue to grow. Will have the wealth to control the technologies of the future. Developing countries will increasingly rely on TNCs to help develop their resources
OPEC may re-emerge as a powerful cartel in influencing supply and pricing of both oil and gas.
Scramble to claim previously protected areas and exploit them as remaining reserves become more valuable e.g. Arctic is less well protected than Antarctica and there have been a number of territorial claims.
Increasing chance to become a bargaining tool or threat to geopolitical relationships.

87
Q

What are the components of demand for water?

A

Agricultural use: irrigation of crops, cleaning/washing, watering livestock
Industrial/commercial use: coolant in electricity generation, heating, steam turbines, transport and various industrial processes e.g. textile and paper manufacture, metal processing and the construction of industry
Domestic/household use: public or municipal water supply, used for drinking and food preparation, personal hygiene, sanitation and washing/cleaning.

88
Q

What are some issues associated with water?

A

Every 15 seconds a child died due to water bourne diseases.
Unequal access to water
Perception of water e.g. seen as an opportunity for profit
Water pollution
Reducing waste
Need to tackle industrial and agricultural demand
Importance of water to development ‘global common good’

89
Q

How many people globally lack access to safe, clean water?

A

1/9 people

90
Q

Define water scarcity

A

When an individual doesn’t have access to safe and affordable water to satisfy their need for drinking, washing or for livelihood. We call that person water insecure. When a large number of people in an area are water insecure for a significant period of time, that is termed water scarcity.

91
Q

Describe how climate affects water security

A

Low pressure: associated with precipitation
Monsoon replenishes water supply
El Nino Events: may decrease water supply in some areas
Climate Change: decrease summer rainfall but increase winter rainfall and storm events

92
Q

Describe how geology affects water security

A

Surfaces: impermeable surfaces e.g. clay acts as water shedding. Permeable and porous rocks e.g. chalk acts as aquifers
Surface stores: if the ground is impermeable and water cannot infiltrate, surface stores are polluted and there is risk of eutrophication.
Permeable rocks: groundwater flow through these basins provides a constant supply of water, and the water is good quality as it is filtered through the rock.
Mountainous ranges: encourage relief rainfall and water supply, though a rain shadow on the other side may reduce water supply in nearby areas.

93
Q

Describe how drainage basins affect water supply?

A

Drainage basins: a greater drainage density and number of inputs into a river helps ensure a consistent water supply. If one supply of water decreases, the other water sources (e.g. groundwater flow) ensure the overall impact of the basin is not significant.
Droughts: droughts upstream can cause decreases in supplies downstream.

94
Q

Discuss the Murray Darling Drainage Basin

A

Provides 75% of Australia’s water. Average rainfall across the basin is 480mm, but this hides geographical differences.
Water abstraction upstream has permenantly damaged wetlands near the mouth.
The East of the basine experiences much more rainfall than the West (East = 1001-2000) (West=350). Much more discharge in the West as channels flow East to West.
Outputs - evaporation on eastern edges
Input - extraction from aquifer
Impermeable rock for percolation/drainage

95
Q

Describe the Thames Drainage Basin

A

Suffering severe water stress, average annual rainfall of 690mm (one of the driest in the UK)
Only 250mm available for use due to evapotranspiration
Frequent winter rainfall allows groundwater stores to be replenished
Chalk acts as an aquifer and provides base flow into tributaries
1/3 of water supply pumped directly from aquifer via bore holes
Source of water from tributaries where water flows over impermeable clay.
Groundwater is the most important source of water.

96
Q

Describe areas experiencing a water surplus

A

Some areas experience a water surplus due to various geophysical, water management and water usage characteristics

  • climate giving regular, plentiful, rainfall
  • effective water treatment and management
  • low water usage characteristics.

Temperate or tropical areas
Not always a correlation with rainfall, can depend on an ability to manage water effectively.

97
Q

Describe areas with a water scarcity

A

Around 1.2 billion people live in areas that are water scarce
Mostly Middle East and North America, Central Asia, Indian sub-continents
Arid regions are most associated with physical water scarcity and there are increasing regions where water scarcity is brought on by human factors.

98
Q

Define water stress

A

Inbalance between water use and resources available. Demand > water availability
< 1700m*3 per person per year

99
Q

Define physical water stress:

A

Declining availibilty of water >500mm per year

100
Q

Define economic water stress

A

Lack of money to effectively manage, distribute and maintain water supply

101
Q

What are some reasons for increasing water stress?

A

Climate change - rising temperature equals more evaporation
Rising population
Rising levels of wealth and consumption of goods (use of water directly and virtually)
Commercialisation of agriculture: more water demand (fertilisers and pesticides)
Industrial growth: more demand for water, contamination of water supply.

A-level Geography (12 decks)

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