Resit: Approaches Flashcards
falsifiable
for a claim to be ‘scientific’, it should be open to tested so it can be ‘proven wrong’
objective
scientist’s expectations/bias shouldn’t affect recordings
replicable
to demonstrate validity of findings have to repeat it
empirical
info must be gained through direct observation / experimentation as opposed to reasoned argument
quantification
scientists collect data that can be analysed and statistically tested
FOR psyc as a science
objective + systematic methods (knowledge backed up with evidence giving psyc credibility)
establish cause + effect (useful to understand underlying triggers + make predictions)
if evidence no longer fits understanding, we can test and refine theories TMT psyc remains current + evidence-based
AGAINST psyc as a science
objectivity + control = artificial & contrived experimental conditions (lacks validity)
much subject matter unobservable (make inferences)
don’t fully understand brain & how we work - behaviour arguably more complex than things measured in more traditional sciences
dualism
proposed by Descartes - mind + body separate so mind worthy of study itself
tabula rase
concept introduced by Locke - belief mind is ‘blank slate’ at birth + we develop our experiences with environment
introspection
first systematic experimental attempt to study mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
psychology as a science
Wilhelm Wundt, James, Hall
Behaviourist approach
behaviour learned from experience
only observable behaviour
animal research
blank slate (Locke - tabula rasa)
paradigm shift
classical & operant conditioning
Behaviourist Approach researchers
Pavlov, Watson & Raynor, Skinner
Behaviourist Approach Pavlov
dog salivate b4 food presented e.g. response to food bowl
bell no response - food bowl response
bell and food bowl = response
bell = response
Behaviourist Approach Watson & Raynor
Little Albert
LA & white rat = no fear
LA & bang = started/cry
continous association - LA CC to experience fear at sight of rat
Behaviourist Approach Classical Conditioning
B4: UCS + NS -> UCR
During: NS + UCS -> UCR
After: CS -> CR
Behaviourist Approach Operant Conditioning
learning through reinforcement & punishment
Behaviourist Approach Skinner
rat learns if level pressed it gets food - reinforcement
How does social learning occur?
learning through observation / modelling directly (CC/OC) or indirectly (socially) involving identification, imitation and reinforcement
Social Learning Theory - mediating cognitive factors
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
Social Learning Theory - vicarious reinforcement
learning through observing role models receiving reinforcement
Social Learning Theory - Rotter
focus on holistic interaction between individual & environment
behaviourist too reductionist (animals not same)
internal functioning, personality, social context affects behaviour
Bandura developed this further arguing both imitation & thinking key factors in ‘real life’ meanings
Social Learning Theory - indirect learning
indirect learning is a social construct from role models through observation of behaviour & consequences
Social Learning Theory - how do we decide whether to imitate
informational processing mediates between stimulus & response + decisions made whether to imitate
Social Learning Theory - evidence
Bandura et al
Social Learning Theory - evaluation (weaknesses)
too reductionist (takes view all behaviour can be broken down into fundamental processes of conditioning)
nature vs nurture (commitment to environment as chief influence on behaviour)
Social Learning Theory - evaluation (strengths)
biology support theory (discovery of mirror neurons)
support evidence & application to real life (Andsager et al: understanding modelling & identification improved success of campaigns that target health behaviours concluded similarity to model improved anti-alcohol campaigns)
When did cognitive approach become important?
mid 1950s due to dissatisfaction with behaviourist approach and development of better experimental methods
Cognitive Approach
mediational processes occur between stimulus & response (look at mental processes & how these influence behaviour)
psychology as a science (use investigations as basis for making inferences)
humans are information processors (resembling that in computers based on transforming, storing, retrieving information) (information processing models of cognitive processes assume mental processes follow a clear sequence)
Cognitive Approach - Computer Metaphor (similarities)
both capable of storage & retrieval
both have capacity to work on / process material
both liable to memory corruption
Cognitive Approach - Computer Metaphor (differences)
computer coding not affected by emotions
computer code directly inputted but humans add meaning to input received through senses
computers can retrieve exact copies of information
computers always pay attention to inputs but humans can direct attention away from one input
Cognitive Approach - schemas
templates that organise knowledge & experience
feed into beliefs, expectations & memories
shortcuts - useful but can lead to mistakes
learnt + adapt with experience
Cognitive Approach - evaluation
+ lab experiments (highly controlled & rigorous methods BUT low ecological validity + low levels of realism so not able to apply to real life)
- reductionist (narrows focus on mental processes + ignores others)
Cognitive Approach - cognitive neuroscience
study of biological structures & processes that relate to cognition
Cognitive Approach - emergence of cognitive neuroscience
developments in technology allow us to study brain at work
use techniques (fMRI & PET) to image brain function + investigating & understanding conditions (Alzheimer’s) + investigating structure / storage of memory + examining effects of damage / experience on brain (aging)
The Humanistic Approach
optimistic + focuses on noble human capacity to overcome hardship
fundamentally different to animals (conscious beings capable of thought, reason, language)
free will - active agents
idiographic approach (focuses on individuality)
assumes we want to fulfil our potential + are self-driven
The Humanistic Approach - what are Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- physiological needs
- safety needs
- love needs
- esteem needs
- cognitive needs
- aesthetic needs
- self-actualisation
The Humanistic Approach - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
humans driven by desire to grow
meeting these needs motivates our behaviour
to achieve self-actualization you must have all the levels
The Humanistic Approach - Carl Rodgers
people need positive regard from others
self-worth develops with experience in childhood & influences wellbeing
issues can be explained by lack of unconditional positive regard or the presence of conditions of worth
humanist counselling - therapists provide unconditional acceptance - this environment allows the client to dissolve their negative conditions of worth
The Humanistic Approach - evaluation (strengths)
application to real life
1. Rodgers: client-centred therapy
2. Harter et al: teenagers who try to be what their parents want them to be end up unhappy
The Humanistic Approach - evaluation (weaknesses)
unrealistic - ignores negative traits - assumes everyone wants self-actualisation
unscientific - no scientific evidence - lacks reliability & replicability
one size doesn’t fit all - person-cantered therapy not for everyone - Greenberg et al: must be socially/linguistically skilled, have need for intimacy + willing to talk about ‘inner experience
humanistic - congruence
the aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match
humanistic - conditions of worth
when a parent places limits or boundaries on their love or their children
biological approach - key assumptions
direct correlation between brain activity + cognition
biochemical imbalances can affect behaviour
brain physiology can affect behaviour
behaviour can be inherited (determined by genetic information)
origins of the biological approach
Charles Darwin’s book (Origin of Species) describes process of natural selection - with time species evolve so that only adaptive characteristics remain in future offspring
biological - genotype
genetic make-up of an individual e.g. eye-colour - combination of inherited genetic material from both parents
biological - hormone
chemicals produced by endocrine glands, which cause a physiological reaction in cells e.g. testostrone, oestrogen, adrenaline
biological - gene
part of a chromosome of an organism carrying inheritable information
biological - natural selection
the process by which characteristics which enhance reproductive success and/or survival are passed down, thus becoming more widespread in the population
biological - phenotype
observable characteristics of an individual - differs from genotype due to interaction with genes + environment
biological - neurotransmitter
chemical messengers which can stimulate or calm down our brain e.g. dopamine, serotonin
