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Biopsychology Flashcards

1
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation

A

idea that the 2 hemispheres are functionally different + certain mental processes are mainly controlled by 1 hemisphere

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2
Q

Right Hemisphere important for…

A

orientating & navigating

recognizing faces

recognizing music

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3
Q

Left Hemisphere important for…

A

producing & comprehending language

maths solving

logical thinking

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4
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation & Split-Brain Research: Sperry & Gazzanigna split brain patients

A

split brain patients are people who undergone surgical procedure where corpus callosum connecting the 2 hemispheres is cut

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5
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation & Split-Brain Research: Sperry & Gazzanigna (aim)

A

investigate the function of each hemisphere of the brain

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6
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation & Split-Brain Research: Sperry & Gazzanigna (procedure)

A

studied a small number of split brain patients using a visual task. PPs presented images to the left and/or right visual fields

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7
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation & Split-Brain Research: Sperry & Gazzanigna (findings)

A

PPs only able to name objects presented in right visual field, when asked what they saw in left field said ‘nothing’

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8
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation & Split-Brain Research: Sperry & Gazzanigna (conclusions)

A

cannot articulate what is in the right hemisphere unless hemispheres are connected

language is in the left hemisphere only

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9
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation & Split-Brain Research: Sperry & Gazzanigna Evaluation (strengths)

A

methodology: standardised which increases the internal validity of the procedure

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10
Q

Hemispheric Lateralisation & Split-Brain Research: Sperry & Gazzanigna Evaluation (weaknesses)

A

generalisability: only people with epilepsy - seizures may have changed brain activity so can’t

sample: very selective small sample decreases external validity

other research (Turk et al: patient damage to L hem but developed capacity to speak in R leading to ability to speak about info presented to either side of brain) (Szaflarski et al: in childhood, language is lateralised (in L hem). As we age, the R hem starts to take on some of language functions)

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11
Q

Brain plasticity

A

Brains ability to change and adapt as a result of experience

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12
Q

Research support for plasticity

A

Having skilled job: London taxi drivers have significantly large hippocampus

Playing video games: 30’ a day increases grey matter

Meditation: monks have more brain activity than visitors

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13
Q

Animal research for plasticity

A

Kempermann et a: 1 group of rats complex & enriching houses and another standard lab cages
Rats with complex environment had larger hippocampus

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14
Q

Functional Recovery

A

Regaining of abilities that have been damaged/lost as result of brain injury/disease

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15
Q

How is functional recovery achieved?

A

Neural masking
Neural recognition
Axonal sprouting

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16
Q

How is functional recovery achieved? Neural unmasking

A

Signals can be rerouted through dominant synapses TMT neural communication can continue + abilities recovered

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17
Q

How is functional recovery achieved? Neural reorganisation

A

Brain gets other locations to perform damaged function thereby recognising itself. It ca ‘recruit’ similar (homologous) regions on the opposite side of the brain to take on lost function called ‘laterality shift’

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18
Q

How is functional recovery achieved? Axonal Sprounting

A

growth of new nerve endings connecting with other undamaging nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways

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19
Q

Functional Recovery: Stem Cells

A
  1. implanting to directly replace damaged/missing cells
  2. implanting next to damaged areas so growth factor they secret can help nearby cells repair themselves
  3. using them to create pathways around damaged area, by rerouting communication to a new area which could take over function
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20
Q

Functional Recovery: Evaluation

A

+ real world application: neurorehabilitation: constraint-induced movement therapy used with stroke patients whereby they practice using the affected parts of their body

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21
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

Enables researchers to detect which regions are rich in oxygen/active by detecting changes in blood oxygenation + flow that occurs as result of neural (brain) activity

haemodynamic response (when brain area more active consumes more O2 to meet increased demand blood flow directly to active area)

produces 3-dimensional images (activation map) showing which parts of brain involved in particular mental processes (understanding localisation of function)

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22
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

measure electrical activity within brain via electrodes fixed to individuals scalp using skull cap to indicate neurological abnormalities e.g. epilepsy, tumours, disorders of sleep

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23
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Event-related potentials (ERPs)

A

brain’s electrophysiological response to specific sensory/cognitive/motor event can be isolated through statistical analysis of EEG data

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24
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Post-mortem Examination

A

brain analysed after death to determine whether certain observed behaviours during patients life can be linked to abnormalities in brain

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25
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Evaluation - fMRI

A

+ doesn’t rely on use of radiation
+ risk-free, non-invasive, straightforward
+ very high spatial resolution proving clear picture of how brain activity localised
- expensive + only clear if still
- poor temporal resolution
- only measure blood flow in brain so difficult to tell what kind of brain activity

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26
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Evaluation - EEG

A

+ invaluable in diagnosis of conditions
+ contributed to understanding of stages involved in sleep
+ extremely high temporal resolution
- signal not useful for pinpointing exact source of neural activity

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27
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Evaluation - ERPs

A

+ excellent temporal resolution, led to widespread use
+ able to identity many types + describe precise role
- lack of standardisation, difficult to confirm findings

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28
Q

Ways of Investigating the Brain: Evaluation - Post-mortems

A

+ vital in providing foundation for early understanding of key processes in brain (Broca & Wernick relied on studies in establishing links between language, brain, behaviour)
+ improve medical knowledge + help generate hypothesis
- observed damage may not be linked to deficits
- ethical issues of consent

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29
Q

endogenous pacemakers

A

internal body clocks regulate biological rhythms
e.g. influence of suprachiasmatic nucleus on sleep/wake cycle

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30
Q

endogenous pacemakers - suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

bundle of nerve cells located in hypothalamus in each hem

one of primary EPs in mammalian species + influential in maintaining circadian rhythms

receives information about light directly from this structure - continues when eyes closed, enabling biological clock to adjust to changing patterns of daylight whilst we asleep

master clock

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31
Q

endogenous pacemakers - animal studies and the suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

DeCoursey et al: destroyed SCN connections in brains of 30 chipmunks - returned to natural habitat + observed for 80 days - sleep/wake cycle disappeared + significant proportion had been killed

Ralph et al: ‘mutant’ hamsters with 20-hour sleep/wake cycle - SCN cells of mutant transplanted into brains of normal, cycles of 2nd group defaulted to 20 hours

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32
Q

endogenous pacemakers - pineal gland & melatonin

A

receives information on day length & light from SCN - during night (dark) increases melatonin (chemical that induces sleep)

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33
Q

exogenous zeitgebers

A

external cues that affect (entrain) biological rhythms
e.g. light

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34
Q

sleep / wake cycle

A

daily cycle of biological activity based on 24-hour period (circadian rhythm) influenced by regular variations in environment

governed by EPs and EZs

two dips between 2-4am + between 1-3pm

in absence of EZs a free running circadian rhythm runs 25 hours

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35
Q

exogenous zeitgebers - light

A

reset body’s main EP (SCN)

indirect influence on key processes in body that control functions (hormone secretion & blood circulation)

Campbell & Murphy

36
Q

exogenous zeitgebers - light (Campbell & Murphy)

A

light may be detected by skin receptor sites on body even when same information not received by eyes

15 PPs woken various times + light pad shone on back of knees

deviation in usual cycle of up to 3 hours

37
Q

exogenous zeitgebers - social cues

A

at 6 weeks old, circadian rhythms begin + about 16 weeks most babies entrained - schedules imposed by parents likely to be key influence, including times for eating & sleeping

38
Q

strengths for exogenous zeitgebers

A

research revealed numerous circadian rhythms in many organ/cells in body called peripheral oscillators
although peripheral clocks highly influenced by actions of SCN they can act independently - Damiola et al demonstrated ow changing feeding patterns in mice could alter circadian rhythms of cells in liver by up to 12 hours whilst leaving rhythm of SCN unaffected suggests there are other complex influenced in sleep/wake cycle

phototherapy for jet-lag: Burgess et al used bright vs intermittent vs dim light on passengers after flight - bright sifted rhythms by 2.1 hours, intermittent 1.5 hours, dim 0.6 hours - PPs in bright group felt sleepier 2 hours earlier in evening + woke up 2 hours earlier

39
Q

order of the three neurons

A

sensory, relay, motor

40
Q

sensory neuron

A

carry messages from sensory receptors via peripheral NS and CNS

convert info from sensory receptors into neural impulses

long dendrites + short axons

41
Q

how do reflex actions occur

A

some of sensory neurons terminate in spinal cord allowing reflex actions to occur quickly without delay of sending impulses to the brain

42
Q

relay neurons

A

when impulses reach brain, info analysed + translated into sensations of visual input, heat, pain meaning so that organism can decide how to respond appropriately

connect with other neurons e.g. allows sensory + motor neurons to communicate

short dendrites + short axons

found within brain + spinal cord only (CNS)

43
Q

motor neuron

A

send messages via long axons from brain to muscles/effectors

when axon of neuron fires, muscles with which it forms synapses contracts - when neuron inhibited muscle relaxes

located in CNS + project their axons outside of CNS to directly/indirectly control muscles

form synapses with muscles + control contractions - when stimulated, bind to receptors on muscle and trigger a response which leads to muscle movement

short dendrites + long axons

44
Q

types of neurotransmitter

A
  1. excitatory (noradrenaline) - excitatory NT bind with postsynaptic receptor + produces excitatory postsynaptic potential TMT postsynaptic cell more likely to fire impulse
  2. inhibitory (GABA/serotonin) - responsible for relaxation and sleep - inhibitory NT binds with postsynaptic receptor + produces inhibitory postsynaptic potential TMT postsynaptic cell less likely to fire
45
Q

synaptic transmission

A

when action potential reaches presynaptic terminal triggers synaptic vesicles to release NT into synaptic gap

NT diffuse across gap between pre and post-synaptic cells

NT bind to post-synaptic receptor sites on membrane of post-synaptic neuron’s dendrite

stimulation of post-synaptic receptors converts the chemical message back to electrical impulse + process of transmission begins again in post-synaptic neuron

effects are terminated by reuptake - NT taken up by pre-synaptic neuron where they are stored in synaptic vesicles ready for later release

46
Q

endocrine system

A

network of glands throughout body that manufacture/secrete hormones

provides chemical system of communication for body via bloodstream - specific hormone release from endocrine gland

works closely with nervous system to regulate these physiological processes, but uses blood vessels to deliver hormones to target sites in the body rather than neuron

47
Q

endocrine glands

A

group of cells within endocrine system
produce + secrete hormones - each gland produces different hormones which regulate activity of tissues/organs

major endocrine glands: pituitary gland, adrenal glands, reproductive organs

48
Q

endocrine glands - pituitary glands & hormones

A

produce hormones which release hormones from other glands to regulate body’s functioning

hypothalamus collects information about what’s required to maintain homeostasis, which triggers pituitary gland to make changes to return body to correct state

front (anterior) associated with ACTH (triggers release cortisol in response to stress) - associated with hormones relating to reproduction

back (posterior) release ‘love hormone’ oxytocin

49
Q

endocrine system - adrenal gland and hormones

A

top of kidneys
2 parts: adrenal cortex + adrenal medulla
adrenal cortex: produce hormones related to cardiovascular regulation + anti-inflammatory functions, releases cortisol + controls hormones that regulate blood thickness + volume
adrenal medulla produces adrenaline + noradrenaline

50
Q

endocrine system - fight of flight response to acute stress

A

SAM

  1. amygdala & hypothalamus - A associates sensory signals with emotions associated with fight or flight - sends distress signal to H which communicates with SNS
  2. SNS preps body for fight or flight - sends signal through to adrenal medulla which releases adrenaline into bloodstream
  3. adrenaline circulates through body + causes physiological changes
  4. PNS - once threat passes, this dampens down stress response
51
Q

endocrine system - response to chronic (ongoing) stressors

A

Hypothalamus (CRH)
Pituitary Gland (ACTH)
Adrenal Cortex (cortieosteroids)

hypo releases CRH into bloodstream
CRH causes pituitary to produce + release ACTH - ACTH transported into bloodstream to adrenal glands
ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol (responsible to positive effects)

52
Q

localisation of functions in the brain

A

different areas of brain responsible for different behaviours, cognitive processes or activities associated with different parts of body

human brain viewed being formed of 3 concentric layers: central core, limbic system, cerebrum

53
Q

localisation of function - cerebral cortex

A

divided into 2 hemispheres

some functions dominated by 1 hem (lateralisation)

activity of left side of body controlled by right hem

outer layer of hems called cerebral cortex - each hem made up of 4 sections called lobes

3 mm thick

54
Q

localisation of function - visual cortex

A

in occipital lobe

both hems have it, each receiving input from opposite side of visual field

different parts specialised for colour, shape, movement, pattern, recognition, faces

55
Q

localisation of function - auditory cortex

A

in temporal lobe
responsible for sound processing

56
Q

localisation of function - motor cortex

A

governs voluntary movement
posterior of frontal lobe
both hems have 1
specialised areas which control different parts e.g. fingers

57
Q

localisation of function - somatosensory cortex

A

detects sensory events
anterior of parietal lobe
both hems have 1 + they process touch, pain, pressure, heat from opposite side of body
produces sensation in relevant location

58
Q

localisation of function - the language centres: Broca’s area

A

identified by Broca in 1880s
most famous patient was Tan
involved in cognitive tasks + considered vital for language production
Broca’s aphasia characterised by every limited + clumsy speech/writing
frontal lobe in left hemisphere

59
Q

localisation of function - the language centres: Wernicke’s area

A

identified by Wernicke
patients could speak (nonsense words) but couldn’t understand
responsible for language comprehension
Wernicke’s aphasia characterised by very limited understanding of language + inability to form coherent speech
temporal lobe in left hem

60
Q

localisation of function - Phineas Gage

A

worked construction of US railroads
explosives ignited in rock + rod propelled through Skull
Gage survived + John Harlow treated him and wrote report on recovery & life
Gage became impulsive, rude + incapable of reason - lost his friends + alienated those close to him
conc: frontal lobes responsible for personality + reason

  • case studies can’t be replicated
  • can’t generalise (very unique)
  • case studies no inter-observer reality + subjective (researcher bias)
    + allows us to study behaviours that may not be ethical
61
Q

localisation vs holistic theory

A

19th century Broca & Wernicke discovered specific areas associated with particular physical & psychological functions

before supported holistic (all parts involved in processing of thought & action)

Broca & Wernicke argued localisation of function - if certain area of brain damaged, function associated with that area will also be affected

62
Q

evaluation - supporting evidence for localisation of function

A

Dougherty et al: neurosurgery (damage to areas of brain linked to mental disorders) (neurosurgery last resort for treating mental disorders targeting specific areas of brain which may be involved e.g. cingulotomy involved isolation region called cingulate gyrus which has been implicated in OCD)

Buckner & Peterson: used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task + Broca’s area during reading task - semantic & episodic memories reside in different parts of prefrontal cortex

63
Q

evaluation - contradictory evidence for localisation of function

A

Lashley: removed areas of cortex (10-50%) in rats that were learning a maze - no areas were proven more important than any other area in terms of rat’s ability to learn maze

Dick & Tremblay: only 2% modern researchers think language in brain completely controlled by B&W areas - fMRI mean neural processes in brain studied (language function distributed more holistically)

64
Q

weakness of exogenous zeitgebers

A

ethics in animal studies - DeCoursey et al: animals exposed to considerable harm & risk when returned to natural environment

influence of EZ overstated: Miles et al (recount story of man, blind with circadian rhythm of 24.9 hours despite exposure to social cues - studies of indiv who live in Arctic regions show normal sleep patterns (both examples suggests there are occasion when EZ little bearing on internal rhythm)

65
Q

the different biological rhythms

A

infradian - more than 24 hours (menstrual cycle, SAD)
circadian - 24 hours (core body temp, sleep/wake cycle)
ultradian - less than 24 hours (stages of sleep)

66
Q

biological rhythms - SCN

A

night (less light) - eyes (photoreceptors send message through optic chiasm) - message sent to SCN - SCN sends message to pineal gland - pineal gland produces melatonin

67
Q

EPs & EZs

A

interaction of these produce biological rhythms (circadian)
photoreceptor cells sensitive to changes in light levels so sun rising resets SCN TMT internal & external factors combine to enable us to keep rhythm + adjust to changes

68
Q

strengths of endogenous pacemakers

A

teenagers & phones: Touitou - exposure to artificial light at night results in disruption of circadian rhythms - blue light component in phones leads to melatonin suppression + circadian disruption resulting in irregular, disrupted sleep

69
Q

biological rhythms

A

distinct patterns of changes in body activity that conform to cyclical time periods

influenced by EPs and EZs

70
Q

circadian rhythm

A

type of biological rhythm subject to 24 hour cycle

regulates a number of body processes e.g. sleep/wake cycle + changes in core body temperature

71
Q

circadian rhythm - Siffre’s Cave Study

A

spend 6 months in cave
no natural light - had electricity
biological clock allowed to free-run
wired up to record body functions

erratic S/W cycle at first then settled to 25 hours
he emerged 17th September believing it was 20th August

we do have internal mechanism (EP) that regulates S/W cycle but it shifts as we don’t have EZs to reset it

72
Q

circadian rhythms - Aschoff & Wever

A

PPs spent 4 weeks in WW2 bunker with no natural light
most PPs displayed circadian rhythms of 24-25 hours (one 29 hours)
findings support idea that S/W cycle longer than 24 hours + has been entrained by EZs

73
Q

circadian rhythm - Folkard et al

A

studied 12 people in cave for 3 weeks
PPs asked to go to sleep + wake up at certain times + researchers gradually sped up clock
majority unable to comfortably to adjust
suggests existence of strong free running S/W cycle

74
Q

evaluation of circadian rhythms - strengths

A

shift work Bovin et al: period of reduced concentration in shift workers - 3x more likely to develop heart disease might be due to adjusting to different S/W cycle - research in this may have economic implications

real world application: Chronotherapy - refers to how well drugs are absorbed by body - research into CR helped develop guidelines for most effective drug dosing for patients

75
Q

evaluation of circadian rhythms - weaknesses

A

individual differences: larks & owls: not every S/W cycle same, makes generalisations - people vary from 13 to 65 hours - Duffy et al: larks display preference going to bed early + owls prefer opposite

76
Q

evaluation of circadian rhythms - Siffre’s Cave Study

A

confounding variable: artificial light is EZ - inhibits melatonin so doesn’t go to sleep - he controls when light in on/off so controls sleep/wake

can’t generalise to women - he is experiences cave explorer so comfortable in cave environment - isolation impacted mental health leading to likely impact on behaviour - unrepresentative samle

cold environment - stay in sleeping bag + lie down which can cause sleep - sleep to keep warm - research suggests temperature can influence S/W cycle

77
Q

infradian rhythms - the menstural cycle

A

governed by monthly changes in hormone levels which regulate ovulation
typical cycle takes approx 28 days
during cycle, oestrogen levels risk causing ovary to develop and release egg - after ovulation , progesterone helps womb lining thicken readying body for pregnancy - if not pregnant, egg absorbed into body, womb lining comes away + leaves body

78
Q

infradian rhythms - the menstrual cycle research study

A

evidence suggests cycle influence by exogenous factors (other women):
Stern & McClintock: cycles can sync as influence of female pheromones - 29 women with history of irregular periods - samples of pheromones gathered from 9 at different stages of cycle via cotton pad in armpit - pads treated with alcohol & frozen to be rubbed on upper lib of other PPs - on day 1, pads from start of cycle applied to 20 PPs - day 2 all given pad from 2nd day of cycle and so on - 68% of women experienced changes to cycle which brought them closer to ‘odour donor’

79
Q

infradian rhythms - SAD

A

depressive disorder which has seasonal pattern
persistent low mood, lack of activity + interest in life
triggered during winter months when number of daylight hours become shorter
circannual rhythm (subject to yearly cycle) - also classed as circadian rhythm as experience of SAD due to disruption of sleep-wake cycle + can be attributed to prolonger periods of darkness
psychologists hypothesised melatonin implicated in cause of SAD - during winter, lack of light in morning means secretion of M continues longer - knock-on-effect of production of serotonin

80
Q

ultradian rhythms - stages of sleep cycle

A

5 stages that span approx 90’ - cycle continues through night
each stage characterised by different level of brainwave activity monitored using EEG

Stage 1&2: light sleep (easily woken) - brainwave patterns become slow & more rhythmic (alpha waves) becoming slower as sleep becomes deeper (theta waves)
Stage 3&4: delta waves - slower & greater amplitude than earlier wave patterns - deep sleep/slow waves sleep + difficult to rouse somewhere
Stage 5: REM sleep - body paralysed + brain activity speeds up significantly in manner that resembles awake brain REM (rapid eye movement) - highly correlated with dreaming

81
Q

evaluation - infradian - evolutionary basis of menstrual cycle

A

menstrual synchrony may have evolutionary value - for ancestors advantageous to menstruate together + fall pregnant same time - new-borns cared for collectively increasing chances of survival
validity questioned: Schank: if too many females cycling together, would produce competition for highest quality males thereby lowering fitness of offspring - from this point of view avoidance of synchrony would appear to be most adaptive evolutionary strategy

82
Q

evolution - infradian - methodological limitations of synchronisation studies

A

many factors may effect change in women’s menstrual cycles e.g. stress, changes in diet, exercise act as confounding variables TMT any supposed pattern of synchrony is no more than would have been expected to occur by change
involved small samples of women + relies on PPs self-reporting

83
Q

evaluation - infradian - evidence supports idea of distinct stages in sleep

A

Dement & kleitman monitoring sleep patterns of 9 adult PPs
EEG recorded brainwaves activity + controlled effects of caffiene/alcohol
REM highly correlated with experience of dreaming
replications noted similar findings through small sample critised in original

84
Q

evaluation - infradian - practical application SAD

A

effective treatments is phototherapy
lightbox that stimulates very strong light in morning & evening
Eastmann et al: resets melatonin levels, releaving symptoms in up to 60%

85
Q

evaluation - ultradian rhythm - BRAC: Kleitman

A

90’ rhythm cycle during waking hours
Basic Rest-Activity Cycle: period of alertness followed by a spell of physiological fatigue
mind focuses for 90’ - towards end body begins to run out of resources - loss of concentration, fatigue, hunger

86
Q

evaluation - ultradian rhythm - Ericsson et al

A

best performers in study of violinists were those who practices for 3 sessions during the day - session lasted no more than 90’ + break between

87
Q

evaluation - ultradian rhythm - individual differences: Tucker et al

A

differences in PPs duration of each sleep stage - likely to be biologically determined
research evidence: growth hormone produced during slow-wave sleep, SWS reduced in older people - deficit explain issues in old age (reduced alertness)

Psychology (5 decks)

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