researching social inequalities Flashcards
what is validity
validity - the extent to which the findings are a true picture of social reality
what is representativness
representativness - whether the sample mirrors the characteristics of the target population
what is researcher imposition
researcher imposition - where the researcher imposes bias on the research making it less valid
what is the researcher/hawthorne effect
researcher/hawthorne effect - when people know they are being researched they may alter their behaviour, answers etc which reduces validity. some features may increase this: a power imbalance, social characteristics, location, demand characteristics (clues that make participants aware of how they are expected to behave or answer,) the social desirability effect and yea-saying.
what is reliability
reliability - the extent the method produces similar results when repeated
what is generalisability
generalisability - whether the findings can be applied to the target population
what is verstehen
verstehen - when the researcher gains an empathic understanding of the participants
what is reflexivity
reflexivity - the willingness of the researcher to reflect their values have on the research and the impact on the participants
what are the aims, methods and strategies of positivists
this is linked to structural theories such as marxism and functionalism since they believe that people think and act in predictable ways because they are shaped by society. positivists therefore adopt a macro approach to look at how the organisation of society tends to affect individuals.
the aims of positivist research are to find patterns, trends and correlations to find cause and effect relationships which can establish what durkheim called social facts or social laws. they adopt a linear strategy that starts with a hypothesis which is then operationalised, they then create a series of pre determined and standardised questions or categories. large representative samples and random sampling techniques are used to increase generalisability and they then collect data using quantitative methods. methods include pre coding which gives a numerical value to data which can then be transferred onto graphs making patterns and trends more visible. quantitative methods reduce researcher imposition, allow the researcher to remain objective, creating value free research. the structure and standardisation creates high reliability. they are also cheap and quick to carry out.
what are the aims, methods and strategies of interpretivists
this is linked to social action theories who argue it is the activities and beliefs of individuals that make up the social world, they therefore research at the micro level.
the aim of interpretivist research is to develop a clear understanding of a topic and describe it fully by gaining verstehen to gain a valid picture of their reality. interpretivists usually adopt a cyclical strategy, they collect data as soon as possible and wait for common themes to emerge that may help develop a theory making it possible for unexpected insights to be revealed. there is usually a focus on one small group to explore their experience in depth. methods include building up rapport with a small group which allows the researcher to gain verstehen. participants are allowed to speak freely and direct the research, improving the validity. research therefore starts from the viewpoint of the participants with less researcher imposition.
how do different approaches try to achieve objectivity
positivists say research should be value free and so researchers should keep their distance from the people they are studying creating greater validity. however interpretivists argue validity comes from the researcher seeing it from the participants point of view and that pre determining everything in advance can lead to researcher imposition. however this could lead to going native where the researcher becomes primarily a member of the group rather than an observer. positivists also argue qualitative methods can lead to researcher imposition through selection of evidence.
many interpretivists practise reflexivity and keep research diaries to document how the researchers role may undermine the validity of the findings which allows the reader to come to their own conclusions.
respondent validation is also used to reduce researcher imposition and increase validity which can also break down the power imbalance between researcher and participants.
what is mixed methods
mixed methods is the use of more than 1 method in a single piece of research.
what is methodological pluralism
methodological pluralism is when methods are chosen on the basis of their fitness for purpose, making it a specific type of mixed methods approach.
what is triangulation and what are the different types
triangulation is where data is cross checked using either: within method triangulation where a variety of techniques within the same method are used eg open and closed questions, between method triangulation where 1 method is used to cross check another, data triangulation where data collected at different times and places and by different people and investigator triangulation where different researchers are used in carrying out the research.
what are the guidelines for ethics and who created them
the british sociological association sets out guidelines for ethics that all researchers are expected to follow.
confidentiality and anonymity: the identity of participants should be kept confidential and stored securely with regard to the data protection act eg by use of pseudonyms. if participants know the information cant be traced back to them they are more likely to open up and proved valid answers.
protection from harm: the physical,social and psychological well being of participants should not be negatively affected by the research during it or after publication especially where participants are drawn from vulnerable groups or topics are sensitive.
right to withdraw: participants should be able to withdraw from research at any stage
informed consent: sociologists should explain as fully as possible what the research is about, why it is being carried out and potential future uses of the data. in some situation a proxy or gatekeeper may be required to give additional consent eg children. sometimes covert methods are used to research powerful or deviant groups which violates informed consent, this must be justifiable i.e. of significant value and no alternative method.
what is a hypothesis, research aim and research question
hypothesis - a prediction that can be tested
research aim - state what the research is aiming to do
research questions - enable the researcher to narrow down a broad topic and fulfil the aims of the study
what is operationalisation
defining a concept of idea and turning it into indicators that can be measured. they need to accurately measure the concept (valid) and each time they are used the respondent will understand them in the same way (reliable.) positivists say this makes research reliable and scientific.
what is a sample frame
sample frame - a list of members in the target population from which a sample can be selected.
what are the four types of random sampling
simple random sample - where names are picked out entirely at random but it may not be truly representative
systematic random sample - where every nth term on a list is chosen but it may not be truly representative
stratified random sample - population is divided according to known criteria. within these broad strata people are chosen at random
cluster sampling - when the people the researcher wishes to use are in a number of different locations. a number of locations are chosen at random and then individuals within locations.
what are the six types of non random sampling
quota sampling — this can be used when the proportions of people in the uk according to characteristics are known and the researcher can seek out a quota of people with these characteristics to get the same proportions in the sample.
convenience sampling - any group used for research that is easily available to the researcher.
opportunity sampling - where the researcher uses people who happen to be about and fit the criteria
snowball sampling - finding one person who agrees to act as gatekeeper and through them build a bigger sample
purposeful sampling - if information from certain individuals would be very useful then they are specifically selected
volunteer sampling - advertising for people who fit certain criteria to get in touch
what is the average response rate
response rate is the percentage of people that agree to participate in the research, 50% is generally considered to be a reasonable response rate.
what is a pilot study
a small scale test run of a study to check for potential problems. the researcher can ask those who tool part for feedback as a way to fix problems which saves time and money.
what are the different types of statistics and what are the pros and cons
secondary source of quantitative data.
official statistics are the numerical data collected by or for the government. these include: hard statistics that are seen as objective since they cant be manipulated and soft statistics which are open to different interpretations eg crime and health
non-official statistics are collected by non government sources
pros of statistics:
cheap and easy to access
reliable facts
large representative samples can be generalised
allow for comparisons over time
cons of statistics:
are open to political abuse and manipulation eg governments changing the way unemployment statistics are defined
socially constructed and the result of someone making a decision or judgement which can be biased
reduce human behaviour to a number
what are the different types of questions in a questionnaire and give pros and cons
a primary source of mainly quantitative data
closed questions lead to a one word answer whereas open questions may have a space to write down a longer answer
pros of questionnaires:
quick and cheap - large samples over a geographically dispersed population - generalisable
low researcher effect and anonymous - validity
standardised - reliable
can be analysed statistically
cons of questionnaires
leading, loaded or vague questions or technical vocab reduces reliability
different interpretations of questions reduces validity
artificial - researcher effect reduced validity
chosen questions high risk of researcher imposition
what is a structured interview and give pros and cons
primary source of quantitative data where the interviewer asks pre-determined questions
pros of structured interviews:
better response rate than questionnaires - representativness
scientific, reliable, objective
low ethical concerns
can clarify questions - reliability - valid answers
cons of structured interviews:
artificial - researcher effect reduces validity
demand characteristics, different social characteristics and power imbalance - reduced validity
pre determined questions - findings based on pre determined ideas
what are unstructured interviews and give pros and cons
primary source of qualitative data where there are no pre-determined questions
pros of unstructured interviews:
less artificial reducing interview effect and creating rapport and verstehen increasing validity
reduced researcher imposition
cons of unstructured interviews:
low in reliability
difficult to compare
researcher imposition when selecting findings
small samples - representativeness and generalisability
what are group interviews and give pros and cons
primary source of quan or qual data where a group of people take it in turns to answer the interviewers question, they can be structured, semi structured and unstructured.
pros of group interviews:
interaction can be observed
encourages deeper thought about issues - validity
closer to normal life - less artificial
cons of group interviews:
participants may feel pressure to conform - validity
what are focus groups and give pros and cons
a primary source of qual data where a small group are asked to discuss a topic with eachother, guided by a facilitator
pros of focus groups:
less artificial - validity
more comfortable discussing things with people with similar characteristics
cons of focus groups:
dominant participants may take over reducing validity and generalisability
small groups may not be representative
what are the six forms of observation and give the pros and cons
a primary source of data that can be done structured for quan data and unstructured for qual data
covert observation - pros: reduced researcher effect improves validity and allows access to hard to reach groups cons: ethically problematic, may be dangerous and can be difficult to make notes
overt observation - pros: researcher can ask questions increasing validity cons: researcher effect may reduce validity
participant observation where researcher joins in daily life of participants - pros: build rapport and verstehen reducing researcher effect increasing validity cons: may lose objectivity and go native
non - participant observation where researcher is ‘fly on the wall’ - pros: not joining in reduces influence on group’s behaviour increasing validity cons: awareness of observation may increase researcher effect
structured observation where pre determined categories are put on an observation schedule - pros: quantitative data allows for patterns and comparisons cons: based on pre determined idea of the researcher
unstructured observation - pros: valid and allows for unexpected insights cons: takes time to build trust and lacks reliability
what is ethnography
observation combined with unstructured interviews.
what are the three forms of content analysis and give pros and cons
primary data from secondary data that can be quan or qual.
formal content analysis - previously identified categories are recorded on a grid
thematic analysis - examines the writer’s bias and the message behind the portrayal of a particular topic
textual analysis - examines the message the audience/reader may be getting
pros of content analysis:
cheap and easy - larger samples representative and generalisable
uncovers ideological bias
cons of content analysis:
formal may be impacted by researcher imposition
what are case studies and give the pros and cons
in depth study of one particular case or instance of something
pros of case studies:
high level of detail - validity
can be used to apply a theory
cons of case studies:
unlikely to be representative - not generalisable
unreliable and not objective
what are documents and give pros and cons
source of secondary quan or qual data. can include personal, public and historical documents.
pros of documents:
personal - honest - valid
easy to access and often cheap
cons of documents:
unrepresentative
may be biased or untrue
give pros and cons of longitudinal studies
pros:
track changes over time
in depth - valid
cons:
time consuming and expensive
people may drop out
hawthorne effect
