families and relationships Flashcards
what is a household
a household refers to a person living alone or a group of people who live at the same address sharing some costs and resources. family households contain members who are related to each other by blood, marriage, adoption etc. a non family household may contain one or more people who are not related.
what is a nuclear family
murdock compared research on 250 societies ranging from small hunting and gathering bands to large scale industrial societies, he found that the nuclear family is the basis of the family unit in all societies and is therefore necessary for the survival of society. the ideology of the nuclear family refers to a dominant set of ideas promoting the nuclear family as the ideal type of family. the new right are particularly in favour of what leach referred to as the ‘cereal packet family.’ however less than 5% of the population live in a traditional nuclear family (OECD 2011)
what is an extended family
these include kin in addition to the nuclear family. parsons argues that as societies industrialise specialised institutions develop to perform functions previously carried out by the family eg childcare. as well as this modern industrial societies require a geographically mobile workforce which leads to relationships with extended family becoming a matter of choice rather than obligation. willmott found that the dispersed extended family is the norm where people stay in contact with their extended family but dont live together. mcglone et all analysed survey data from 1989 and 1995 and found that contacts with relatives had declined but were still pretty high eg 50% of people with dependent children saw their mothers at least once a week and 45% saw their fathers. the british social attitudes survey found that over 60% of grandparents saw their grandchildren at least once a week and jones found 1 in 3 families depend on grandparents for some childcare and many grandparents also provide financial support. brannen argues were are now more likely to experience vertical intergenerational ties leading to a ‘beanpole family.’ grundy and henretta use the term ‘sandwich generation’ to refer to the generation expected to look after both the children and the elderly, this usually falls to women because they are socialised to see this as their duty.
what is a lone parent family
families where at least one child lives with one parent. 24% of families are lone parent and this is triple the number on the 1970s and 90% are headed by a mother. the average age of a lone parent is 38yrs. reasons for the increase in lone parent families include: the rise in divorce, gingerbread shows 49% of lone parents had their children within a marriage, phillips argues there has been a flight from parenting and people are no longer willing to participate in traditional family life, the divorce reform act 1969 introduced a new groud for divorce ‘irretrievable breakdown’ and the MFPA 1984 reduced the time a couple had to wait after marriage to file for divorce from 3 to 1 yrs. changing social attitudes, the fastest growing group of lone parents is those who have never been married gingerbread found that this makes up 51% of lone parent families david and morgan argues greater equality for women means it is now more feasible for women to bring children up on their own, secularisation means that there is less stigma attached to being a lone parent of having children outside of marriage and barlow et al found people are much more accepting of parenthood outside of marriage.the new right are against lone parent families because they believe they have a connection with educational underachievement and crime. murray argues lone parents are a large portion of the underclass who choose to live on benefits and dont support conventional family life and often children in lone parent families grow up without a male role model and so dont learn discipline. dennis and erdos say that on average children in lone parent families have poorer health and lower educational attainment. however gingerbread found that 41% of lone parent families are poor compared to 20% of couple families showing that the state does not offer ‘perverse incentives’ encouraging lone parenthood. it also shows that poverty rather than poor socialisation is the cause of poor health and educational attainment. gingerbread also found that 71% of lone parents whose child is 11-15 are in work which is a similar rate to mothers in couple families showing that lone parents are not workshy.
what is a reconstituted family
reconstitued families are created where a couple come together to form a family including at least one child, these make up 10% of all families. in 2010 78% of reconstituted families consisted of the natural mother, her children and a step dad, 18% natural dad etc and 4% had children from both previous relationships.
allen et all found relationships within reconstituted families also differ and that parents and grandparents tend to treat ‘natural’ children different from stepchildren. de’ath and slater found children may find themselves pulled in different directions especially if the relationship between the natural parents is strained and they may have a tense relationship with their stepparents. there are no clearly stated norms defining the role of step parent eg bedell found the role of the step father often shifts between uncle, father and older brother depending on the time or place.
debates include the new right who believe reconstituted families are a sign the family is breaking down rather than an example of diversity because they are the result of increasing divorce and separation (patricia morgan.) allen et al point out that step families have been regarded as a solution to lone parent families since they often form a nuclear family and seek to portray themselves as ‘ordinary families.’
what is a non family/single person household
in 2013 there were 800,000 households in the uk containing two or more unrelated adults and today almost 3 in 10 are made up of only one person.
klinenberg outlines three reasons for the increase in single person households: ageing population, in 2005 59% of women aged over 75 were living alone. the cult of the individual, beck and beck gernsheim argue people have become more individualistic and seek greater freedom and choice in their lives. the communications revolution, klienenberg argues people can live alone but still enjoy a social life due to technology.
what are some emerging/newer types of household
lats are couples who are firmly committe to eachother but have seperate homes, sometimes raising children together in seperate households. 1 in 10 people in britain live apart together. levin identified lats as able to combine the independence of living alone while still being able to enjoy the closeness of being part of a couple. haskey and lewis argue that many lats eventually cohabit or marry so aspire to conventional relationships in the long run
families of choice are where individuals choose to include people as family members who are not traditionally related. weeks et al point out that many same sex families often look upon their friends as chosen families due to closer bonds formed as a result of a shared oppressed identity. roseneil argues chosen families are now a characteristic of heterosexual households too. tv series such as friends and will and grace reflect this.
many parents co parent and continue to share responsibility for their childs care following separation and divorce. gingerbread found that while only 9% of lone parents share the care of their child equally, 71% of children have to face contact witht he parent they dont live with.
1% of households are multifamily households in which two or more families live together, this was the fastest growing household type between 1996 and 2012 (ONS.) they suggest reasons for the increase include economic reasons and cultural reasons.
what are some differences within the family between social classes
organisational differences include being less likely to get married with 66% of people in class 1 being married compared to 44% of people in class 7. corse et al argues the working class are now less likely to get and stay marries and have children within marriage due to the rise in unstable casual employment. kiernan and mueller argue the higher rates of divorce among the working class are often die to financial problems.
bourdieu argues there are socialisation differences between classes since the middle class try to develop their childrens cultural capital. crompton also points to the inheritance of economic capital being a large part of class reproduction, wealthier parents are also more able to afford to invest in their childrens education.
while some argue that socialisation into the underclass is another socialisation difference, jordon found that the poor and long term unemployed share the same norms and values of everyone else, suggesting that there isnt class diversity in terms of socialisation into different cultures.
what are some differences within the family between sexual identity
in 2002 it became legal for queer couples to adopt children. the civil partnerships act 2004 came into affect in 2005. the marriage act 2013 came into affect in 2014. between 2005 and 2010, 50,000 gay and lesbian couples have had civil partnerships and the ons shows that only 2.5% have been dissolved compared to 5.5% of heterosexual marriages ending in divorce in that time period. stacey argues same sex families are more likely to include people from outside family relationships in the inner circle of their families, creating family forms to suit their needs.
dunne found childcare is largely shared among lesbian couples, creating much fairer conjugal roles. stacey argues same sex families cant model themselves entirely on the norms of the heterosexual nuclear family which makes these relationships slightly more nurturing than heterosexual relationships. however some same sex families have a fairly conventional life and model themselves as much as they can on the nuclear family.
the new right argues there are socialisation differences since children in same sex families will either be under pressure to experiment with homosexuality or be bullied at school because of their parents they argue that all children nee a mother and a father to act as role models and socialise children effectively. however gottman found the adult daughters of lesbian mothers were just as likely to be heterosexual as the daughters of heterosexual mothers. also riggs found lesbian parents are less gender stereotypical in their choice and approval of games and clothes than heterosexual parents.
what are some differences within the family between ethnic minorities
the 2011 census shows that ethnic minorities make up 19% of the population in england and wales.
berthod found that by age 25, 75% of pakistani and bengladeshi women are married compared to just over half of white women, showing some organisational differences. the rate of divorce among south asians is just over half of the white british rate. it is also common for pakistani and bangladeshi families to have four or more children, although this is reducing. 67% of british resident indian elders live with an adult child compared to 15% of white british elders. berthoud found african caribbeans have a low rate of marriage at 39% compared to 60% of white british and a higher rate of cohabitation. the rate of divorce and sepsration is twice as higher leading to half of african caribbean families being lone parent families. therefore berthoud argues that african caribbean families are characterised by modern individualism.
ghumann found there are also socialisation differences since british asian families socialise children into loyalty to the extended family. many children continue to live near parents and visit them regularly when they leave home. berthoud found a majority of pakistani and bangladeshi women are full time housewives, 81% of bangladeshi women and 70% of pakistani women do this in comparison to 27% of white british women. berthoud argues that in some caribbean island eg jamaica there is a strong tradition of matrifocal or mother centred families, african caribbean lone mothers are also more likely to work (43%) compared to british lone parents (27%) which reflects the tradition of female independence in the black community.
however ethnic groups may not be as important a form of diversity because. reynolds argues visiting unions where lone mothers have a partner who visits frequently and plays an active role as a parent are common. these visiting unions are often seen as a stepping stone to a stable cohabitation or marriage or as an alternative providing women with independence. butlers research of young muslim girls moving away from some asian cultural traditions created culturally hybrid identities which overtime may blur family diversity between ethnic groups.
how much has the divorce rate increased and what are some reasons for that
in 2005 45% of marriages ended in divorce and the proportion of people who divorced before reaching their 50th anniversary had increased by about a third since 1979.
legal change included the divorce reform act 1969 which became effective in 1971, introduced the irretrievable breakdown of marriage as new grounds for divorce. this made divorce far more accessible and the number of divorces doubled in 1971. the matrimonial proceedings act 1984 (effective from 1985) reduced the time a couple had to wait between the date of marriage and being able to file a petition for divorce from three years to one. in 1949 the legal aid and advice act provided financial help for legal fees in divorce for those who could not afford them.
social attitudes also changed. secularisation means divorce is no longer stigmatised and couples are less likely to stay in empty shell mariages. giddens argues there has been a trend towards confluent love and when a marriage ceases to provide this, individuals are likely to end it. cockett and tripp argue the rise in divorce has lead to it being normalised, the british social attitudes survey found 82% of people did not believe a couple should stay together if they dont get along.
feminists argue changing gender roles have lead to less women being financially dependant on their husbands, making divorce more feasible. hart argues divorce may be a reaction to the frustration many working wives feel as they have a dual burden or triple shift. gittins argues women are more disillusioned with marriage as shown by the fact that divorced men are more likely to remarry than divorced women and 70% of divorce petitions are made by wives.
what are the demographic changes within marriage
in 1995 56% of the population was married but by 2010 this had dropped to 48%. also the average age at first marriage increased by 8 yrs between 1970 and 2010
how much has cohabitation increased, why might this be and to what extent is cohabitation contributing to family diversity
in 1970 2 in 100 adults under 50 cohabited, this increased to 1 in 6 in 2010.
feminists argue that changing gender roles has lead to more women rejecting oppression by husbands since marriage is a patriarchal institution. wilkinson argues that young women no longer prioritise marriage and children which has lead to them weighing up the costs of marriage and having children against the benefits of a career and economic independence.
social attitudes have also changed. secularisation means there is less pressure to marry especially if a couple has a child outside of marriage, leading to less shotgun weddings. barlow et al found increasing acceptance of cohabitation correlated with increased acceptance of sex before marriage and 40% of people saw cohabitation as an alternative to marriage (the british household panel survey.)
back and back gersheim argue that individualisation has led to changing attitudes towards cohabitation and marriage. there is less pressure to follow traditional norms and values around love set by family, religion or culture. the rise of confluent love (giddens) has led to monogamy being replaced with serial monogamy which suits cohabitation rather than marriage.
the new right argue that the ‘decline in family values’ is a sign of moral decline within society and look back to a ‘golden age’ in the 1950s. patricia morgan claims cohabiting couple are less happy and fulfilled than married couples and are more likely to be abusive, unfaithful and stressed. haskey argues cohabiting couple with children are twice as likely to end the relationship as married couples with children.
cohabitation may not contribute to family diversity because: a BSA survey found most people still see marriage as a desirable goal and 40% of all marriages are remarriages. the british household panel survey found most people saw cohabitation as part of the process of getting married and over half saw it as a trial marriage and in 2007 80% of couples cohabited before marriage (ONS.)
how much has the birth rate decreased, why might this be and what is the impact
according to the CBR (crude birth rate) the birth rates have fallen steadily since 1900, with two booms after the world wars. the TFR (total fertility rate) is the number of children people who can have children have on average. in 1970 it was 2.4 but in 2005 it was 1.8.
reasons may include: declining mortality rates since people know their children have a better chance of survival and so dont have as many, economic factors since children used to work as soon as they could and were seen as an economic asset however now the cost of raising a child from birth to 21 yrs in 2013 was £227, 266 (the cost of a child report,) womens opportunities mean that they have more options and tend to delay having children until their have a stable career eg in the 70s the average age of a women at the birth of her first child was 24 yrs whereas now three times as many women have studied for degrees, individualisation means that people no longer have to follow traditional norms and values (beck and beck gernsheim,) in 1967 the pill was made available to all women and free contraception was made available on the NHS in 1974 as well as this abortion was legalised in 1968 under the 19667 abortion act, people in britain work longer hours than other european countries and many people work evenings and weekends making it very difficult to also parent a child.
the impact of the declining birth rate and smaller family size has been the decline of the full time mother and the rise of dual earner families. rapoports said that one type of dual earner family is a middle class family where both parents work full time and can afford to have cleaners and send their children to nursery and the other more common type is composed of a husband who works full time and a wife who works part time and takes on most of the childcare and housework. fewer children also results in less horizontal intragenerational ties.
how much has the population aged, why might this be and what is the impact of this
another trend is the ageing population. from 1985 to 2010 the median age of the uk went from 35 to 39.
reasons may include: fewer children being born and increased life expectance eg in 1951 life expectance was 66 for men and 70 for women and in 2012 it was 78 for men and 82 for women.
this can cause some problems such as: an extra burden of care on the family grundy and henretta argue this burden usually falls on women in beanpole families, the increased cuts to pensions and healthcare provisions has led to the family taking on more of this care and it is estimated that carers including family carers save the uk economy £87 bn/year.
positive aspects of an ageing population include: reciprocal familial support where grandparents take care of grandchildren and in return daughters help their parents in old age, jones found that 1 in 3 families depend on grandparents for some childcare and or financial support.
