globalisation and the digital social world

Question 1

what is globalisation

Answer 1

cochrane and pain define it as the emergence of a global economic and cultural system, which is incorporating people of the world into a single global society. however wiseman argues that the term can be misused and misunderstood and is therefore difficult to define especially considering the many aspects of globalism. things that are often assumed are: that it is a positive process, occurs everywhere at an even pace, results in cultural homogenisation, is only economic or cultural and results in social change towards postmodern characteristics.

Question 2

what is the digital revolution

Answer 2

the development of high capacity broadband wireless networks means more people than ever can connect at a high speed. all information is now converted into binary code. maier argues that the miniaturistaion of the computer means they are now a part of everyday life and we have entered an era of ubiquitous computing.

Question 3

what is social media

Answer 3

it is a participatory culture that allows a community of users to interact and collaborate. there are many different kinds eg microblogging, open content sites and virtual world sites. within social media virtual communities are formed that allow people with common interests to interact regardless of geographic location.

miller et al said that social media allows ‘scalable sociality’ which means that people can decide how many people they interact with and the degree of privacy they have

Question 4

what is media convergence

Answer 4

technological convergence is the merging of different types of information into a single digital communication device. boyle says that this has blurred the lines about how we use technologies eg watching tv on your phone

economic convergence is where media, computer, television and telecommunications companies form alliances to produce multimedia delivery systems

cultural convergence is where most members of society now interact with each other using the same type of digital communication. letters have been replaced with emails and texts. also the way people consume is also changing eg 6 in 10 british adults use the internet for shopping.

jenkins argues that interactivity and convergence has lead to a ‘participatory culture’ where media producers and consumers no longer occupy separate roles but interact with eachother.

Question 5

what is a networked global society

Answer 5

technology has transformed all relationships and given rise to ‘real virtuality’ where virtual networks are a fundamental part of reality.

castells argues that technology means that people can organise themselves into communities who share information and organise collective action. this is known as a civil society approach (a community of ordinary citizens linked by common interests and collective actions) which can be used to challenge traditional sources power.

the instantaneous and global nature of the internet means that peoples political interests are also about how britain interacts witht eh rest of the world. also a persons political career can be taken down within a matter of minutes since news and gossip spreads so quickly.

Question 6

what is a virtual community

Answer 6

they have been able to form due to space time compression (harvey) allowing people to interact and share information instantly.

carter researched a virtual community that she named cybercity. she spent three and a half years carrying out the study using participant observation, questionnaires and semi offline semi structured interviews. she found that it was used as a way to meet people with similar interests and people often took their online relationships as seriously as their offline ones.

since 2007 belgian police have begun patrolling second life (another virtual community) because a user was raped in the game using a rape add on.

Question 7

what are digital social networks

Answer 7

the use of internet based social media programmes to make connections with others

this can increase a persons social capital eg online communities can provide ‘bonding social capital’ and produce shared information that may include opportunities, granovetter proposed the strength of weak ties theory meaning that acquaintances can provide a wider variety of contacts and these weak ties are easier to maintain online than irl, social media also enables minority groups with muted voices to create supportive communities, organise activism and highlight their everyday experiences

Question 8

what is a global village

Answer 8

the idea that the world is becoming a smaller place due to daily interactions between people across the world.

mcluhan predicted this, he said that all the worlds cultures would compress into one homogenous culture. for example the 2010 world cup was distributed globally to every country providing a shared experience globally.

Question 9

what is big data

Answer 9

the massive volume of data generated by digital worlds (mayer-schonberger)

in the past data and information was recorded on paper and was only available to a few people. now there are huge amounts of data about what people do online which can be sold to different organisations and companies for targeted advertising.

Question 10

what do marxists say about digital forms of communication and what are some criticisms

Answer 10

cornford and robins argue the people who own and control digital media are capitalists who want to make a profit and ideologically control the masses. this is supported by jenkins who points out that the ownership of digital communication is concentrated in the hands of a few transnational corporations. this contributes to globalisation which seabrook argues is a type of cultural imperialism as it integrates all cultures into a single global economy and culture. dal young jin points out that 98% of internet platforms are run by for-profit organisations and 78% of them are US based he called this platform imperialism.

digital communication is increasingly commercialised with advertising. algorithms shepherd people towards making ‘choices’ that benefit the ruling class. fuchs argues that the collection and use of user data is a form of surveillance.

fuchs argues that owners of digital communication exploit ‘prosumers’ who both produce and consume media for free. this labour creates surplus value and therefore profit for the owners.

criticism: pluralists say that they ignore the varied views represented in media, some neo marxists argue that the internet gives voice to muted groups and can revitalise democracy.

Question 11

what do feminists say about digital forms of communication and give some criticisms

Answer 11

women are represented in a very narrow range of social roles. 12% of the worlds websites offer porn and 100,000 offer child porn, the porn industry makes 97.06 bn dollars a year (feminist peace network.) maltzhan points out that many popular video games show sexual assault on women. vega montiel said that ‘reducing women to sexual objects and making them available for consumption through communication and information technology seems to be one of the most dramatic expressions of the digital age.’ this refers to how easy it is to sexually exploit women through the internet without any repercussions

the transnational corporations that own the internet are mostly run by men eg at google men make up 83% of engineering employees also women such as ada lovelace are often written out of computing history. all of this leads to a lack of role models, reinforcing stereotypes and having a self fulfilling effect.

cyber feminists are positive about the effects of the internet eg haraway argues that the anonymity granted by the internet allows people to transcend gender, she described gender neutral cyber identities as cyborgs. munro argues that the internet has created a ‘call out culture’ allowing people to challenge misogyny eg the everyday sexism project created by laura bates. salami also said that the internet has allowed women to connect across countries, drawing attention to the lives of woc and allowing people to adopt more intersectional feminism.

criticism: a united nations report found that women risk being harassed if they participate in public debate on the internet eg caroline criado-perez was sent rape and murder threats when she campaigned to get jane austen on a bank note (she was evetually successful.)

Question 12

what do postmodernists say about digital forms of communication and give some criticisms

Answer 12

pros

the internet has creates more options for people and offers a greater range of choices from which people can create a hybridised global identity. cultures are mixing, creating new global hybrid styles in fashion, food etc.

they also argue that the internet has created a post truth society where there is no such thing as an absolute truth resulting in the fragmentation of knowledge.

cons

baudrillard says that people are so immersed in the internet that they cant distinguish between real life and the digital version of reality, he calls this ‘hyper-reality.’ case argues that teenagers now have two adolescents one online and one offline making mistakes made as a teenager harder permanently recorded.

criticisms: they exaggerate the impact digital communication has on peoples ability to choose and they ignore the fact that much of the internet is owned by a small number of companies.

Question 13

what is the impact of digital communication on social class identity

Answer 13

it can be used to gain social capital while removing class barriers. antheunis found a link between the use of facebook and gained social capital through weak ties. quan-haase found that connecting friends of friends is more socially acceptable online, leading to a diversification of weak ties.

digital communication gives muted groups a voice including lower class people. the occupy movement represents the 99% against the 1% and they campaign against social inequality and the way that the power of large corporations undermines democracy. kirkpatrick also argues that social media has shifted the power balance to customers and individuals since they can contact politicians or businesses more easily.

however there is a digital underclass of people who cant afford access to the internet. white found that the middle class were over 3.5 times more likely to have online access. the lse also found that they were more likely to use its range of resources since their parents are more likely to be internet literate.

marxists also argue that digital communication is controlled by the ruling class and has provided them with new ways to exploit the proletariat (prosumers.) conford and robins also argue that digital media is used to ideologically condition the proletariat ensuring that they have a false class consciousness.

Question 14

what is the impact of digital communication on age identity

Answer 14

gardener and davis argue that young people take a lot of care over how the present themselves online: construct a socially desirable self online, identity performance - trying to control others impressions of them (goffman.) this leads to young people having less time for irl interaction, making them more narcissistic in comparison with other generations.

turkle argues that young people are mentally tethered to their phones and this has reduced their ability to create an autonomous sense of self and that they are dependant on how others react to them online - their thoughts and feelings arent real until they have been validated online.

youthnet say young people are digital natives and that 75% said they couldn’t live without the internet. dowd argues that this creates a digital divide between the young and old, making it hard for them to understand eachother. this can make old people feel as though they are ‘strangers in their own land,’ since only 37% of households above state pension age have internet access compared to 79% of younger households

Question 15

what is the impact of digital communication on gender identity

Answer 15

women are objectified and turned into commodities online through the way they are represented. malzhan points out that many popular games such as gta show rape and violence against women. they are also not represented in the digital world which is viewed as masculine leading to a self fulfilling prophecy (suanjani.) due to it being seen as more masculine, men tend to be more self confident about their computer skills (li and kirkup.)

however cyberfeminists such as munro have said that a call out culture has been created, allowing people to challenge sexism. for example laura bates founded the everyday sexism project where people can share experiences with everyday sexism that would have otherwise gone unmentioned.

a un report shows that women who do engage in debate online are met with harassment and abuse. for example anita sarkeesian was subjected to an online hate campaign when she tried to raise money to explore stereotypes of women in the gaming industry.

haraway argues that the internet can be used to transcend gender eg miller et al found that women in turkey had more freedom online when using fake names as it allowed them to participate in activities that may be frowned on by their family. miller et al argues that for some, the internet can be a place of privacy such as women in india being able to exist and interact outside of the male gaze

nakamura found that when there are no identity cues, people often assume that others are white men.

Question 16

what is the impact of digital communication on relationships

Answer 16

gardener and davis argue that young people now hang out online in the same way that they used to hang out in physical spaces. they also say that digital communication is used as a virtual tap on the shoulder, maintaining links between physically separated people. miller et al found that people use social media to keep in contact with family if they are far away eg in chile men who skype family while working in the mines. zhao found that activities directly connecting individuals increase social ties while solitary activities decrease social ties. kraut et al also argued that people using the internet for social purposes also maintain their offline relationships.

katz argues that online relationships are ‘a poor substitute for the real thing’ since it is a lot easier to have a false identity. stoll also said that online communication encourages isolation and replaces authentic friendships with superficial ones

turkle said that digital communication means that people are ‘alone together’ because they are their phones doing other tasks but in the same room. palmer says that people who allow their children to be babysat by technology leads to children feeling isolated and unable to relate to people offline, they called this ‘toxic parenting.’ clayton did 581 interviews and found that the more a person used twitter the more likely they were experience ‘twitter related conflict’ about how much time was spent or what was said online which could lead to outcomes such as cheating or breaking up.

jones highlights the increase in cyberbullying and cyberstalking. bond found that 11 to 17 yr olds use mobile phones to maintain and manage their friendships however this can blur the boundaries between public and private spheres, making the private no longer feel safe.

Question 17

what is the impact of digital communication on age inequality

Answer 17

there is a digital generational divide as older people are less aware and able to use digital communication. younger generations are digital natives meaning that they grew up with it. ofcom found that the average 6 year old understands more about digital technology than the average 45 year old. Berry found that 79% of households below state pension age have internet access vs only 37% of households above state pension age.

thi sgenerational divide may lead to the elderly feeling like ‘strangers in their own land’ (dowd.) this is due to an increaing amount of things being online such as shopping and banking. they may lack understanding of conventions with digital communication or may struggle to send a text, leading to feelings of loneliness.

however, ofcom has found that the generational divide is decreasing due to more digital immigrants for example the number of 65 to 74 yr olds using tablets to go online went from 5% in 2012 to 17% in 2013. older people using digital technology are sometimes referred to as silver surfers.

Question 18

what is the impact of digital communication on class inequality

Answer 18

helpser argues that digital communications are dominated by the middle class because there is a digital underclass who lack the economic capital to afford tablets etc.

this impacts school since an increasing amount of it is set online and uses online resources. the london school of economics found children from better off backgrounds had more access to the internet and were more likely to know how to use the resources. white found that the middle class were over 3.5 more likely to report having online access compared to the working class.

marxists point to the way that the middle and upper class are able to further their existing advantages through the internet by increasing their social and economic capital.

however it could be argued that the internet gives people from lower class backgrounds access to education through e learning courses and allows them to increase their social capital, reducing inequalities between the classes.

Question 19

what is the impact of digital communication on gender inequality

Answer 19

the itu found that there is a worldwide gender gap in internet usage of 11%. this gap is a lot bigger in exploited countries at 28.9% at the most whereas countries that exploit others have a gender gap of about 5.4%.

women tend to use pinterest and instagram whereas men tend to use sites such as linkedin. only 13% of the contributors to wikipedia are women.

feminists points to the fact that the digital world is perceived to be more masculine. plan international agrees with this by saying that new gadgets are aimed at men. they also point to a number of barriers for women: internet cafes being uncomfortable or unsafe, household chores limit spare time, school computers being used more by boys. usaid found that 50% of women in afghanistan who didnt have mobile phone cited gaining permission from family members as a significant barrier. intel found that men express concerns about their female family members using the internet eg loss of control.

however cyberfeminists point to the ways women use digital communication as a tool for empowerment.

Question 20

what is the impact of digital communication on location inequality

Answer 20

regional divides

ons shows that 90% of people in the south east of england are recent internet users and vs 80% in northern ireland. overall the research shows that social and digital exclusion are closely linked due to lack of access and lack of digital skills.

global divides

curran and seaton argue that the digital revolution is not a global phenomenon as globalisation is not occurring evenly. the fantasy that global communication is fostering global understanding allows the privileged to delude themselves that their concerns are globally representative.

the international telecommunications union (ITU) found that 82.2% of people in developed countries use the internet compared to 9.5% in the least developed countries.

some things that prevent access to the internet include: material deprivation, language barriers or censorship by the government.

Question 21

give two examples of digital communication impacting conflict and change

Answer 21

social media can facilitate change because: it allows immediate communication, it can reach large numbers of people, it can be anonymous, muted groups can speak out eg in syria where women are forbidden to speak out publically, it allows people to challenge biased news and speak out against regimes

arab spring

the arab spring was a series of anti government protests, uprisings and armed rebellions that spread across the middle east. internet activists were able to establish networks of resistance and social media was used to organise collective action. overall, the internet made political action easier, faster and more universal in egypt.

occupy movement

its a movement concerned about the way large corporations control the world that disproportionately benefits a minority and undermines democracy. the first occupy protest to receive widespread attention was occupy wall street in september 2011 and by october, protests had taken place in over 950 cities across 82 countries. the commonly used phrase ‘we are the 99%’ originated on tumblr and the movement often uses social media to coordinate protests and connect individuals. demonstrating an ‘internet to the streets’ effect.

Question 22

what is the impact of digital communication on conflict and change

Answer 22

optimists

castells argues that digital communication allows people to organise themselves into non-hierarchal networks of like-minded individuals who can share information and organise collective action. this civil society approach is an alternative source of political power that can challenge the power of the state and corporations. he also also argues that recent protests have been more effective because: digital communication allows for self communication mostly free from the influence of governments and corporations, they combine cyberspace and boots on the ground so they are local and global at the same time.

wikileaks publishes leaked documents about government and corporate misconduct. the hacker group anonymous has also engaged in cyberattacks on government and corporate websites.

pessimists

ideas about the ability of digital communication networks to construct an alternative civil society that can bring about real social change are undermined by the global digital divide.

gladwell argues social media fosters ‘slacktivism’ rather than activism - people blog rather than take to the streets. the low risk weak tie and non hierarchal nature of social media means it is incapable of achieving great change. lewis et al researched a facebook campaign called ‘save darfur’ and found that of the 1.2 million people who signed up, fewer than 3,000 ever donated. they said that ‘facebook conjured an illusion of activism rather than facilitating the real thing.’

Question 23

what is the evidence for cultural homogenisation

Answer 23

mcluhan predicted the emergence of the ‘global village’ where all the worlds cultures are compressed into one ‘super culture.’ he also argued that global culture is american culture and that globalisation is americanisation. steven notes that much of the world’s population now listens to the same music and watches the same films and entertainment.

seabrook argues that globalisation is a type of cultural imperialism where richer nations impose their cultural products on the rest of the world. dal young jin points out that 98% of internet platforms are run by for-profit organisations and 78% are US based.

Question 24

what is the evidence for cultural defence

Answer 24

miller et al found the internet had not damaged local identities in trinidad. nearly every online interaction through websites, social networks etc had some reinforcement of their trinidad identity eg using local slang and promoting their nation using national symbols. mckay researched the digital experience of filipinos living in london and found social networking with relatives and friends in the philippines meant they could digitally return to the comfort of the types of cultural relationships that they had physically left behind to insulate themselves from the individualism of western culture and retain their own culture eg obligation to extended family, involvement in community and religion. culturalsurvival.org documents the diverse range of ways in which indigenous tribes and isolated communities are using digital communication to gain a voice. organisations like survival international and tribalnet help empower indigenous people, raising awareness and fundraising through the internet to help them fight for the right to their land and way of life. there are thought to be 77 uncontacted tribes in brazil’s amazon rainforest due to previous disastrous encounters and the ongoing invasion and destruction of their forest home.

in howard’s ethnographic study called digital jesus he found like minded individuals created a large web of religious communication which developed a new type of religious movement without a central leader or institution. this allows them to communicate with each other without ridicule or hostility from those who dont share their beliefs and to spread their beliefs. ritzer points out that the islamic state has used the internet to communicate its message and social media to attract supporters from across the globe. some people, angry at the west and us in particular, have been encouraged to travel to syria to join them. the taliban once banned the use of the internet however they have since developed a strong internet strategy to recruit and spread propaganda.

glocalisation

this is the mixing of local cultural products and globalised cultural products to form hybrids. martell says there are two elements: adapting products to local culture and local culture adapting westernised global culture. robertson argues companies now tailor products to fit local conditions, maintaining cultural diversity. krieken et al point to the glocalisation of mcdonalds which modifies and customises its menus, the aesthetics of its venues and the expectations of its customers according to the cultural context eg they replaced ronald mcdonald with asterix in france. the indian film industry is another example since bollywood combines contemporary western ideas about entertainment with traditional hindu myth, history and culture.