*Research Methods- Year 2

Question 1

Reliability

Answer 1

How consistent a measuring device is, including psychological tests or observations which assess behaviour

Question 2

What are the different ways to assess reliability

Answer 2

-test-retest reliability
-inter observer reliability
-Inter-rater reliability
-Inter-interviewer reliability

Question 3

Test-retest reliability

Answer 3

participants take the same test on different occasions- a high correlation between test scores indicates the test has good external validity

Question 4

Inter-observer reliability

Answer 4

Is used in observations. the extent to which there is an agreement between 2 or more observers involved in observing behaviour
-must report their observations independently and come together at the end

Question 5

Inter-rater reliability

Answer 5

Measured during content analysis

Question 6

Inter-interviewer reliability

Answer 6

Measured during interviews if these are conducted by different people

Question 7

How to improve reliability in questionnaires

Answer 7

-replace open questions with closed, fixed choice questions which may be less ambiguous

Question 8

How to improve reliability in interview

Answer 8

-use the same interviewer
-properly trained so an interview doesn’t ask leading questions
-structured interview

Question 9

How to improve reliability in observations

Answer 9

-operationalised behavioural categories
-categories should not overlap
-all possible behaviour should be covered

Question 10

How to improve reliability in experiment

Answer 10

-standardised procedure

Question 11

Validity

Answer 11

The extent to which an observed effect is genuine- does it measure what it’s supposed to measure and can it be generalised beyond the research setting

Question 12

Internal validity

Answer 12

How much the findings of a method are due to the manipulation of a variable rather than another measure

Question 13

External validity

Answer 13

The findings can be generalised beyond the context of the research situation

Question 14

What are the types of external validity

Answer 14

-Ecological
-Temporal
-Population

Question 15

Ecological validity

Answer 15

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings

Question 16

Temporal validity

Answer 16

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras

Question 17

Population validity

Answer 17

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other cultures/people outside the research

Question 18

What are the ways of assessing validity

Answer 18

-Face validity
-concurrent validity

Question 19

Face validity

Answer 19

A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it’s supposed to measure

Question 20

Concurrent validity

Answer 20

The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
E.g undertaking two different IQ tests

Question 21

How to improve validity in experiments

Answer 21

-use a control group
-standardise procedure
-use blind procedure

Question 22

How to improve validity in questionnaires

Answer 22

-utilise a lie scale
-promote anonymity

Question 23

How to improve validity in observations

Answer 23

-covert observations
-use behavioural categories

Question 24

How to improve qualitative research

Answer 24

-use qualitative or quantitative
-use triangulation

Question 25

What does a correlation co-efficient show

Answer 25

The strength and direction of two or more co-variables

Question 26

case studies

Answer 26

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event.

Question 27

Content analysis

Answer 27

A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, for example, in texts, emails, TV, film and other media.

Question 28

Who does case studies analyse

Answer 28

Often involve analysis of unusual individuals or events, such as a person with a rare disorder or the sequence of events that led to the 2011 London riots.

Question 29

What type of data does case studies involve

Answer 29

qualitative data

Question 30

What type of study is case study

Answer 30

longitudinal study

Question 31

how might researchers conduct a case study history

Answer 31

• using interviews
  -observations
  -questionnaires
  -psychological or experimental testing

Question 32

What type of data might a case history produce

Answer 32

Quantitative

Question 33

Strengths of case studies

Answer 33

-Case studies are able to offer rich, detailed insights that may shed light on very unusual and atypical forms of behaviour.
-Case studies may contribute to our understanding of ‘typical’ functioning. For example, the case of HM was significant as it demonstrated typical memory processing - the existence of separate stores in STM and LTM.
-Case studies may generate hypotheses for future study and one solitary, contradictory instance may lead to the revision of an entire theory - the single pebble that starts an avalanche.

Question 34

limitations of case studies

Answer 34

-Generalisation of findings is obviously an issue when dealing with such small sample sizes.
-The information that makes it into the final report is based on the subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher.
-Personal accounts from the participants and their family and friends may be prone to inaccuracy and memory decay, especially if childhood stories are being told. This means that evidence from case studies begins to look a little low in validity.

Question 35

what type of research is content analysis

Answer 35

observational

Question 36

What is the aim of content analysis

Answer 36

to summarise and describe this communication in a systematic way so overall conclusions can be drawn.

Question 37

what is the initial stage of content analysis

Answer 37

coding and quantitative data

Question 38

what is Coding and quantitative data

Answer 38

Some data sets to be analysed may be extremely large (such as the transcripts of several dozen lengthy interviews) and so there is a need to categorise this information into meaningful units

Question 39

how is coding carried out

Answer 39

may involve simply counting up the number of times a particular word or phrase appears in the text to produce a form of quantitative data. For instance, newspaper reports may be analysed for the number of times derogatory terms for people with mental health issues are used, such as ‘crazy’ or ‘mad.

Question 40

what is Thematic analysis and qualitative data

Answer 40

A form of content analysis but the outcome is qualitative. The main process involves the identification of themes

Question 41

What is a theme in content analysis

Answer 41

Refers to any idea, explicit or implicit that is recurrent

Question 42

What is an example of a theme in content analysis

Answer 42

people with mental health issues may be misrepresented in newspapers as ‘a threat to the well-being of our children or as a drain on the resources of the NHS. Such themes may then be developed into broader categories, such as ‘control, ‘stereotyping’ or ‘treatment of people with mental health issues.

Question 43

What happens once a theme is identified

Answer 43

Once the researcher is satisfied that the themes they have developed cover most aspects of the data they are analysing, they may collect a new set of data to test the validity of the themes and categories.
Assuming these explain the new data adequately, the researcher will write up the final report, typically using direct quotes from the data to illustrate each theme.

Question 44

Strengths of content analysis

Answer 44

-Tends to lack ethical issues as consent has been
given resulting in high levels of external validity.
-Produces quantitative and qualitative data.

Question 45

limitations of content analysis

Answer 45

-The information is being analysed outside the
context it was being used. Researcher may therefore
attribute opinions and motivation that wasn’t
actually there – most researchers do tend to
acknowledge this. Lack of objectivity.

Question 46

Abstract

Answer 46

Summary of all the major elements (aims, hypotheses, method/procedure, results and conclusions)

Question 47

Introduction

Answer 47

-A literature review of the general area of research detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study.
-It should follow a logical progression, beginning broadly and gradually becoming more specific.

Question 48

method

Answer 48

The method should include sufficient detail so that other researchers are able to precisely replicate the study if they wish

Question 49

What details should the method include

Answer 49

-Design - the design is clearly stated, e.g. independent groups, naturalistic observation, etc., and reasons/justification given for the choice.
-Sample - information related to the people involved in the study: how many there were, biographical/demographic information (as long as this does not compromise anonymity), the sampling method and target population.
-Apparatus/materials - detail of any assessment instruments used and other relevant materials.
-Procedure - a ‘recipe-style’ list of everything that happened in the investigation from beginning to end. This includes a record of everything that was said to participants: briefing, standardised instructions and debriefing.
-Ethics - an explanation of how these were addressed within the study.

Question 50

Results

Answer 50

-Summaries the key findings from the investigation. This is likely to include feature descriptive statistics such as tables, graphs and charts.
-Inferential statistics should include reference to the choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, the level of significance and the final outcome, i.e. which hypothesis was rejected.
-Any raw data that was collected and any calculations appear in an appendix rather than the main body of the report.
-If the researcher has used qualitative methods of research, the results/findings are likely to involve analysis of themes and/or categories.

Question 51

Discussion

Answer 51

-The researcher will summarise the results/ findings in verbal, rather than statistical, form. These should be discussed in the context of the evidence presented in the introduction and other research that may be considered relevant.
-The researcher should discuss the limitations of the present investigation and this may include some suggestions of how these limitations might be addressed in a future study.
-Finally, the wider implications of the research are considered. This may include real-world applications of what has been discovered and what contribution the investigation has made to the existing knowledge-base within the field.

Question 52

journal reference

Answer 52

Journal references follow the format: authors, date, article title, journal name (in italics), volume(issue), page numbers.

Question 53

Book reference

Answer 53

Book references take the following format: author(s), date, title of book (in italics), place of publication, publisher.

Question 54

What is a paradigm?

Answer 54

-Thomas Kuhn suggests that scientific disciplines contain a shared set of assumptions and methods – a paradigm.

-He however argues that social sciences lack a universally accepted paradigm. He therefore considers them pre-science and distinct from Biology and Physics.

-Psychology is considered to have internal disagreement and too many conflicting approaches to qualify as a science.

Question 55

What is a paradigm shift?

Answer 55

-The result of a scientific revolution when there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.

-According to Kuhn, this happens when a group of researchers question the accepted paradigm with this resulting in a shift, due to the amount of contradictory evidence there is to ignore.

-Kuhn used the Newtonian paradigm from physics moving to Einstein’s theory of relativity as an example of a paradigm shift.

-We could use the cognitive approach developing to cognitive neuroscience.

Question 56

Theory construction and hypothesis testing

Answer 56

-Theory constructions occurs through gathering evidence via direct observation.
-Theories need to be scientifically tested, they therefore have hypotheses which can then be tested using systematic and objective measures to determine whether it will be supported or refuted.
-If supported, the theory is strengthened, however if refuted, the theory may need to be reviewed.
-The process of deriving new hypotheses from an existing theory is known as deduction.

Question 57

Theory construction

Answer 57

the process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence and then organising this into a coherent account

Question 58

Hypothesis testing

Answer 58

a theory should produce hypothesis which can then be tested. Only in this way, can a theory be falsified

Question 59

Falsifiability

Answer 59

Falsifiability – the principles that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue

Question 60

What does Popper suggest about genuine scientific theories

Answer 60

Popper suggested that genuine scientific theories have ‘passed’ hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false, however believes that this does not mean they are true – they just have not been proven false YET!

The theory of falsification!

Question 61

Replicability

Answer 61

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.

Popper believes that a scientific theory can only be trusted if the findings are repeated across contexts and circumstances.

This allows us to generalise the findings.

This also requires psychologists to report their investigations with as much precision and rigour as possible as other researcher are verifying their work and their findings!

Question 62

Objectivity and the empirical method

Answer 62

Researchers must attempt to maintain objectivity as part of their research to ensure opinions or predictions do not influence the results.

Objectivity – all sources of personal bias are minimised as not to distort or influence the research process

Lab experiments tend to have the highest levels of control therefore are considered the most objective.

Objectivity is the basis of the empirical method.

Question 63

The empirical method

Answer 63

“empiricism” comes from the Greek for experience and emphasises the importance of scientific approaches being based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.

John Locke saw knowledge as determined by experience and perception which resulted in his view, that a theory cannot be claimed as scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified.